Funerary Inscriptions and Epitaphs (Fifth–First Centuries B.C.E.)

These inscriptions and epitaphs provide a glimpse of women’s place in the classical and Hellenistic worlds as described by family members and admirers after their deaths. The words preserved in this form do not simply mark each woman’s passing from this world to the next, but they hold her up as an exemplar of female behavior. As in the past, a woman’s identity revolved principally around her roles as daughter, wife, and mother. Yet not all women’s lives were confined to domestic duties. Some were royal attendants, priestesses, and even physicians, whose daily activities extended into the public sphere.

From Mary R. Lefkowitz and Maureen B. Fant, eds.,Women’s Life in Greece and Rome, 2nd ed. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), 16–17, 190, 206, 219, 221–22, 263, 266–67, 274.

Archedice, Athens, Fifth Century B.C.E.

This dust hides Archedice, daughter of Hippias, the most important man in Greece in his day. But though her father, husband, brothers, and children were tyrants, her mind was never carried away into arrogance.

Aspasia, Chios, c. 400 B.C.E.

Of a worthy wife this is the tomb—here, by the road that throngs with people—of Aspasia, who is dead; in response to her noble disposition Euopides set up this monument for her; she was his consort.

Dionysia, Athens, Fourth Century B.C.E.

It was not clothes, it was not gold that this woman admired during her lifetime; it was her husband and the good sense that she showed in her behavior. But in return for the youth you shared with him, Dionysia, your tomb is adorned by your husband Antiphilus.

Claudia, Rome, Second Century B.C.E.

Friend, I have not much to say; stop and read it. This tomb, which is not fair, is for a fair woman. Her parents gave her the name Claudia. She loved her husband in her heart. She bore two sons, one of whom she left on earth, the other beneath it. She was pleasant to talk with, and she walked with grace. She kept the house and worked in wool. That is all. You may go.

An Accomplished Woman, Sardis, First Century B.C.E.

[An inscription set up by the municipality of Sardis in honor of Menophila, daughter of Hermagenes.] This stone marks a woman of accomplishment and beauty. Who she is the Muses’ inscriptions reveal: Menophila. Why she is honored is shown by a carved lily and an alpha, a book and a basket, and with these a wreath. The book shows that you were wise, the wreath that you wore on your head shows that you were a leader; the letter alpha that you were an only child; the basket is a sign of your orderly excellence; the flower shows the prime of your life, which Fate stole away. May the dust lie light on you in death. Alas; your parents are childless; to them you have left tears.

Posilla Senenia, Monteleone Sabino, First Century B.C.E.

Posilla Senenia, daughter of Quartus and Quarta Senenia, freedwoman of Gaius.

Stranger, stop and, while you are here, read what is written: that a mother was not permitted to enjoy her only daughter, whose life, I believe, was envied by some god.

Since her mother was not allowed to adorn her while she was alive, she does so just the same after death; at the end of her time, [her mother] with this monument honors her whom she loved.

Xenoclea, Piraeus, 360? B.C.E.

Leaving two young girls, Xenoclea, daughter of Nicarchus, lies here dead; she mourned the sad end of her son, Phoenix, who died out at sea when he was eight years old.

There is no one so ignorant of grief, Xenoclea, that he doesn’t pity your fate. You left behind two young girls and died of grief for your son, who has a pitiless tomb where he lies in the dark sea.

Handiwork, Athens, after 350 B.C.E.

I worked with my hands; I was a thrifty woman, I, Nicarete who lie here.

A Storeroom Attendant, Cape Zoster, near Athens, 56–55 B.C.E.

[An epitaph by a mother for a daughter who worked for Cleopatra at the royal court of Alexandria.] Her mother, an Athenian woman, raised her to be an attendant of foreign storerooms. She too rushed for her child’s sake to come to the palace of the king who had set her over his rich possessions. Yet still she could not bring her daughter back alive. But the daughter has a tomb in Athens instead of on Libyan sand.

Epitaph for a Woman Who Died While Pregnant, Egypt, Second–First Centuries B.C.E.

Dosithea, daughter of——. Look at these letters on the polished rock. Thallo’s son Chaeremon married me in his great house. I die in pain, escaping the pangs of childbirth, leaving the breath of life when I was twenty-five years old; from a disease which he died of before, I succumbed after. I lie here in Schedia. Wayfarers, as you go by, all of you, say: “Beloved Dosithea, stay well, also among the dead.”

A Midwife and Physician, Athens, Fourth Century B.C.E.

[The memorial tablet represents two women, one seated, one standing, surrounded by infants of both sexes.] Phanostrate, a midwife and physician, lies here. She caused pain to none, and all lamented her death.

A Nurse, Athens, after 350 B.C.E.

[Epitaph for] Apollodorus the immigrant’s daughter, Melitta, a nurse. Here the earth covers Hippostrate’s good nurse; and Hippostrate still misses you. “I loved you while you were alive, nurse, I love you still now even beneath the earth and now I shall honor you as long as I live. I know that for you beneath the earth also, if there is reward for the good, honors will come first to you, in the realm of Persephone and of Pluto.”

Epitaph for a Priestess, Miletus, Third Century B.C.E.

Bacchae¹ of the City, say, “Farewell you holy priestess.” This is what a good woman deserves. She led you to the mountain and carried all the sacred objects and implements, marching in procession before the whole city. Should some stranger ask for her name: Alcmeonis, daughter of Rhodius, who knew her share of the blessings.

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