Pronouns often refer to a noun, noun phrase, noun clause, or pronoun that was named or implied previously. The word, phrase, or clause the pronoun refers back to is called the antecedent; often, the antecedent is the subject or object of the clause in which the pronoun appears.

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Tom invested all of his money in building a time machine. [Tom is the antecedent of his; using the pronoun is better than writing Tom invested all of Tom’s money in building a time machine.]

At times, the antecedent may appear in a different clause or even a different sentence from the pronoun. There can be multiple antecedents in a sentence or passage.

Because Tom wanted to build a time machine, he invested all of his money in it. [Tom is the antecedent of he and his. Time machine is the antecedent of it.]

Both pronouns and nouns can be antecedents.

Even though some people thought it was a foolish idea, they also invested money in his time machine. [The noun people in the first clause is the antecedent of the pronoun they in the second clause. The noun phrase time machine in the second clause refers back to the pronoun it in the first clause.]

It is important to clearly identify the antecedent of each pronoun; otherwise, your writing may confuse readers. This is especially true for such pronouns as it, this, that, and which.

Unclear She read a review of the book that confused her. [Was it the book or the review that confused her?]

Clear She read a review of the book, a work that confused her. [Now it is clear that it was the book that confused her.]

Possessive nouns, such as Tom’s, José’s, and cat’s, cannot work as antecedents.

Incorrect In Juanita’s story, she described spending the night in a haunted house. (This is confusing because she refers to Juanita, not the story.)

Correct In her story, Juanita described spending the night in a haunted house. (Now, the connection between her and Juanita is clear.)

An adjective clause usually begins with a relative pronoun, such as who, which, or that. These relative pronouns clarify the relationship between an independent clause and an adjective clause. Use who to refer to people and which to refer to things. That can refer to both people and things, depending on context. Use that to introduce an adjective clause when it defines or specifies necessary information about the independent clause. Use which to introduce additional, but not necessary, information about the independent clause.

The Boone River, which flows intermittently during most of the year, overflowed after the storm. [The clause which flows intermittently during most of the year offers additional information that is interesting, but not necessary, about the river. Note that the clause is set off by commas.]

The river that overflowed last week does not generally reach flood levels. [The clause that overflowed last week provides information that specifies which river is referred to; therefore, it is necessary to the meaning of the sentence. Note that the clause is not set off by commas.]

In formal writing, a relative pronoun should be included when it is the subject within an adjective clause.

The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo is a book that gained a great deal of critical acclaim.

In informal writing or speaking, relative pronouns are commonly omitted when they are understood as an implied part of the sentence. While this is common usage, it is generally best to avoid dropping the relative pronoun in formal writing.

Informal The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo is one book I’d like to read.

Formal The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo is one book that I’d like to read.

Informal Here is a vase you can display the flowers in.

Formal Here is a vase in which to display the flowers.

Informal There is the man we think robbed the bank.

Formal There is the man who we think robbed the bank.

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There are two additional relative pronouns that also begin adjective clauses: whose (the possessive form of who) and whom (the object form of who).

Whose begins an adjective clause that describes something that belongs to or is a part of someone or something mentioned in the independent clause.

This tiny hummingbird, whose wings have been known to beat as many as eighty beats per second, is called the amethyst woodstar.

Whom stands in for the noun that receives the action of the verb in an adjective clause.

Formal Bradley Cooper was the actor whom I met when I was in Hollywood. [Bradley Cooper is the subject of the main clause; whom is the object of the verb met in the relative clause and refers to Bradley Cooper.]

Informal Bradley Cooper was the actor I met when I was in Hollywood. [Whom is understood as the object of the verb met.]

Whose is the only possessive relative pronoun; it is used to refer to persons, animals, and things. It takes the place of a possessive pronoun and must be followed by a noun. Using who’s (the contraction for who is and who has) instead of the relative pronoun whose is a relatively common mistake.

Incorrect The man who’s car was stolen also lost his wallet with $500 in it.

Correct The man whose car was stolen also lost his wallet with $500 in it.