Jacquelyn Miller, “The Wages of Blackness: African American Workers and Meanings of Race during Philadelphia’s 1793 Yellow Fever Epidemic,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 129, no. 2 (2005): 163–94. By examining Absalom Jones, Richard Allen, and other important leaders of Philadelphia’s free black community, Jacqueline Miller explores how the 1793 outbreak affected the complex racial tensions in the early national city.

K. David Patterson, “Yellow Fever Epidemics and Mortality in the United States, 1693–1905,” Social Science & Medicine 34, no. 8 (1992): 855–65. This brief article provides an excellent introduction to the biological aspects of yellow fever. It also tabulates the death toll for outbreaks in the United States across more than two centuries and served as the basis for the mortality figures used in this unit.

J. H. Powell, Bring Out Your Dead: The Great Plague of Yellow Fever in Philadelphia in 1793 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1993). Originally published in 1949, this has remained the standard full-length account of the fever crisis for more than sixty years. Powell thoroughly examines the panic in 1793 and its impact on American society.