Naming the author is the core of a citation, regardless of the type of source used. Even so, a few types may present complications.

Indirect Source

If possible, locate and cite the original source. Otherwise, begin your citation with “as cited in” and name your source.

According to Claude Fischer, the belief in individualism favors “the individual over the group or institution” (as cited in Hansen, 2005, p. 5).

Government or Organization Document

If no specific author is identified, treat the sponsor as the author. Give its full name in your first citation. If the name is complicated or commonly shortened, you may add an abbreviation in brackets.

The 2005 National Gang Threat Assessment (National Alliance of Gang Investigators Associations [NAGIA], 2005, pp. vii-viii) identified specific regional trends.

In later citations, use just the abbreviation and the date: (NAGIA, 2005)

Source without a Date

When the date is unknown, use “n.d.” (“no date”).

Interval training encourages rotation between high-intensity spurts and “active recovery, which is typically a less-intense form of the original activity” (Interval Training, n.d., para. 2).

A Classic

If the original date is unknown, use “n.d.” (“no date”). If it is known, show it with your edition’s date: (Burton, 1621/1977). For ancient texts, use the year of the translation: (Homer, trans. 1990). For a quotation from a classic, identify lines, sections, or other standard divisions that locate a passage in any edition. For biblical references, specify the version in your initial citation. Classics — ancient or religious — need not be listed as references.

Many cultures affirm the importance of religious covenant in accounts as varied as the biblical “Behold, I make a covenant” in Exodus 34:10 (King James Version) and The Iliad (Homer, trans. 1990), which opens with the cause of the Trojan War, “all because Agamemnon spurned Apollo’s priest” (Book 1, line 12).

Visual Material

To refer to your own figure or table, mention its number in your sentence: “As Figure 2 shows, …” Clearly cite a visual from a source.

Teenagers who play video games with a high degree of violence are more likely to show aggressive behavior (Anderson & Bushman, 2001, Table 1).

To include or adapt a source’s table or visual, you may need to request permission from the author or copyright holder. Many sources — from scholarly journals to Web sites — state their permissions policy in the issue or on the site. (Ask your instructor’s advice if you are unsure how to proceed.) Credit the material in a “From” or “Adapted from” note below it.

Personal Communication

Personal communications — such as face-to-face or telephone interviews, letters, memos, and e-mail — are not included in the reference list because your readers would not be able to find and use such sources. Simply name your source and the date of the communication in your paper.

J. T. Moore (personal communication, October 10, 2012) has made specific suggestions for stimulating the local economy.