phrase: Two or more related words that work together but may lack a subject (as in will walk), a verb (my uncle), or both (to the attic)
clause: A group of related words that includes both a subject and a verb: The sailboats raced (independent clause) until the sun set (subordinate clause).
preposition: A transitional word (such as in, on, at, of, from) that leads into a phrase such as in the bar, under a rickety table
Sometimes a sentence contains all the necessary ingredients but still doesn’t make sense. The problem may be a discord between two or more of its parts: phrases or clauses that don’t fit together (a mixed construction) or a verb and its subject, object, or modifier (faulty predication) that don’t match.
| 12a | Link phrases and clauses logically. |
A mixed construction results when a writer connects phrases or clauses (or both) that don’t work together as a sentence.
| MIXED | In her efforts to solve the tax problem only caused the mayor additional difficulties. |
The prepositional phrase In her efforts to solve the tax problem is a modifier; it can’t act as the subject of a sentence. The writer, however, has used this phrase as a noun — the subject of the verb caused. To untangle this mixed construction, the writer has two choices: (1) rewrite the phrase so that it works as a noun, or (2) use the phrase as a modifier, not a subject.
| REVISED | Her efforts to solve the tax problem only caused the mayor additional difficulties. [With in gone, efforts becomes the subject.] |
| REVISED | In her efforts to solve the tax problem, the mayor created additional difficulties. [The phrase now modifies the verb created.] |
Mixed constructions result when phrases or clauses are joined even though they do not logically go together. Combine clauses with either a coordinating conjunction or a subordinating conjunction, never both.
For more on coordination and subordination, see 14a–14f.
| INCORRECT | Although baseball is called “the national pastime” of the United States, but football is probably more popular. |
| CORRECT | Although baseball is called “the national pastime” of the United States, football is probably more popular. |
| CORRECT | Baseball is called “the national pastime” of the United States, but football is probably more popular. |
Faulty predication results when a verb and its subject, object, or modifier do not match. Do not use a noun as both the subject of the sentence and the object of a preposition.
| INCORRECT | In my neighborhood has several good restaurants. |
| CORRECT | My neighborhood has several good restaurants. |
| CORRECT | In my neighborhood, there are several good restaurants. |
coordinating conjunction: A one-syllable linking word (and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet) that joins elements with equal or near-equal importance: Jack and Jill, sink or swim
subordinating conjunction: A word (such as because, although, if, when) used to make one clause dependent on, or subordinate to, another: Unless you have a key, we are locked out.
Subject errors include leaving out and repeating subjects of clauses.
| INCORRECT | Is interesting to visit museums. |
| CORRECT | It is interesting to visit museums. |
| INCORRECT | My brother-in-law, he is a successful investor. |
| CORRECT | My brother-in-law is a successful investor. |
To fix a mixed construction, check your links — especially prepositions and conjunctions.
| MIXED | Jack, although he was picked up by the police, but was not charged. |
Using both although and but gives this sentence one link too many.
| REVISED | Jack was picked up by the police but was not charged. |
| REVISED | Although he was picked up by the police, Jack was not charged. |
| 12b | Relate the parts of a sentence logically |
subject: The part of a sentence that names something — a person, an object, an idea, a situation — about which the predicate makes an assertion: The king lives.
predicate: The part of a sentence that makes an assertion about the subject involving an action (Birds fly), a relationship (Birds have feathers), or a state of being (Birds are warm-blooded)
direct object: The target of a verb that completes the action performed by or asserted about the subject: I met the sheriff.
linking verb: A verb (is, become, seem, feel) that shows a state of being by linking the sentence subject with a subject complement that renames or describes the subject: The sky is blue. (See 3a.)
Faulty predication refers to a skewed relationship between a verb and some other part of a sentence.
| FAULTY | The temperature of water freezes at 32 degrees Fahrenheit. |
At first glance, that sentence looks all right. It contains both subject and predicate. It expresses a complete thought. What is wrong with it? The writer has mismatched the subject and verb. The sentence tells us that temperature freezes, when science and common sense tell us water freezes. The writer needs to select a subject and verb that fit each other.
| REVISED | Water freezes at 32 degrees Fahrenheit. |
Faulty predication also results from a mismatched verb and direct object.
| FAULTY | Rising costs diminish college for many students. |
Costs don’t diminish college. To correct this error, the writer must change the sentence so that its direct object follows logically from its verb.
| REVISED | Rising costs diminish the number of students who can attend college |
Subtler predication errors result when a writer uses a linking verb to forge a false connection between the subject and a subject complement.
| FAULTY | Industrial waste has become an important modern priority. |
Is it waste that has become a priority? Or is it solving problems caused by careless disposal of industrial waste? A writer who says all that, though, risks wordiness. Why not just replace priority with a closer match for waste?
| REVISED | Industrial waste has become a modern menace. |
For more on using active and passive voice, see 3m.
Mismatches between a verb and another part of the sentence are easier to avoid when the verb is active rather than passive.
| FAULTY | The idea of giving thanks for a good harvest was not done first by the Pilgrims. |
| REVISED | The idea of giving thanks for a good harvest did not originate with the Pilgrims. |
| 12c | Avoid starting a definition with when or where. |
A definition needs to fit grammatically with the rest of the sentence.
| FAULTY | Dyslexia is when you have a reading disorder. |
| REVISED | Dyslexia is a reading disorder. |
| FAULTY | A lay-up is where a player dribbles close to the basket and then makes a one-handed, banked shot. |
| REVISED | To shoot a lay-up, a player dribbles in close to the basket and then makes a one-handed, banked shot. |
| 12d | Avoid using the reason is because.. |
Anytime you start an explanation with the reason is, what follows is should be a subject complement: an adjective, a noun, or a noun clause. Because is a conjunction; it cannot function as a noun or adjective.
| FAULTY | The reason Al hesitates is because no one supported him last year. |
| REVISED | The reason Al hesitates is that no one supported him last year. |
| REVISED | Al hesitates because no one supported him last year. |
| REVISED | The reason Al hesitates is simple: no one supported him last year. |