Usage refers to the way in which writers customarily use certain words and phrases, including matters of accepted practice or convention. This glossary lists words and phrases whose usage may trouble writers. Not every possible problem is listed — only some that frequently puzzle students. Refer to this brief list when needed, and follow its cross-references to A Writer’s Handbook.
a, an Use an only before a word beginning with a vowel sound. “An asp can eat an egg an hour.” (Some words, such as hour and honest, open with a vowel sound even though spelled with an h.)
above Using above or below to refer back or forward in an essay is awkward and may not be accurate. Instead, try “the preceding argument,” “in the following discussion,” “on the next page.”
accept, except Accept is a verb meaning “to receive willingly”; except is usually a preposition meaning “not including.” “This childcare center accepts all children except those under two.” Sometimes except is a verb, meaning “to exempt.” “The entry fee excepts children under twelve.”
advice, advise Advice is a noun, advise a verb. When someone advises you, you receive advice.
affect, effect Most of the time, the verb affect means “to act on” or “to influence.” “Too much beer can affect your speech.” Affect can also mean “to put on airs.” “He affected a British accent.” Effect, a noun, means “a result”: “Too much beer has a numbing effect.” But effect is also a verb, meaning “to bring about.” “Pride effected his downfall.”
agree to, agree with, agree on Agree to means “to consent to”; agree with, “to be in accord.” “I agreed to attend the lecture, but I didn’t agree with the speaker’s views.” Agree on means “to come to or have an understanding about.” “Chuck and I finally agreed on a compromise: the children would go to camp but not overnight.”
ain’t Don’t use ain’t in writing; it is nonstandard English for am not, is not (isn’t), and are not (aren’t).
a lot Many people mistakenly write the colloquial expression a lot as one word: alot. Use a lot if you must, but in writing much or a large amount is preferable. See also lots, lots of, a lot of.
already, all ready Already means “by now”; all ready means “set to go.” “At last our picnic was all ready, but already it was night.”
altogether, all together Altogether means “entirely.” “He is altogether mistaken.” All together means “in unison” or “assembled.” “Now all together — heave!” “Inspector Trent gathered the suspects all together in the drawing room.”
among, between Between refers to two persons or things; among, to more than two. “Some disagreement between the two countries was inevitable. Still, there was general harmony among the five nations represented at the conference.”
amount, number Use amount to refer to quantities that cannot be counted or to bulk; use number to refer to countable, separate items. “The number of people you want to serve determines the amount of ice cream you’ll need.”
an, a See a, an.
and/or Usually use either and or or alone. “Tim and Elaine will come to the party.” “Tim or Elaine will come to the party.” For three options, write, “Tim or Elaine, or both, will come to the party, depending on whether they can find a babysitter.”
ante-, anti- The prefix ante- means “preceding.” Antebellum means “before the Civil War.” Anti- most often means “opposing”: antidepressant. It needs a hyphen in front of i (anti-inflationary) or in front of a capital letter (anti-Marxist).
anybody, any body When anybody is used as an indefinite pronoun, write it as one word: “Anybody in his or her right mind abhors murder.” Because anybody is singular, do not write “Anybody in their right mind.” (See 7d.) Any body, written as two words, is the adjective any modifying the noun body. “Name any body of water in Australia.”
anyone, any one Anyone is an indefinite pronoun written as one word. “Does anyone want dessert?” The phrase any one consists of the pronoun one modified by the adjective any and is used to single out something in a group: “Pick any one of the pies — they’re all good.”
anyplace Anyplace is colloquial for anywhere and should not be used in formal writing.
anyways, anywheres These nonstandard forms of anyway and anywhere should not be used in writing.
as Sometimes using the subordinating conjunction as can make a sentence ambiguous. “As we were climbing the mountain, we put on heavy sweaters.” Does as here mean “because” or “while”? Whenever using as would be confusing, use a more specific term instead, such as because or while.
as, like Use as, as if, or as though rather than like to introduce clauses of comparison. “Dan’s compositions are tuneful, as [not like] music ought to be.” “Jeffrey behaves as if [not like] he were ill.” Like, because it is a preposition, can introduce a phrase but not a clause. “My brother looks like me.” “Henrietta runs like a duck.”
as to Usually this expression sounds stilted. Use about instead. “He complained about [not as to] the cockroaches.”
at See where at, where to.
bad, badly Bad is an adjective; badly is an adverb. Following linking verbs (be, appear, become, grow, seem, prove) and verbs of the senses (feel, look, smell, sound, taste), use the adjective form. “I feel bad that we missed the plane.” “The egg smells bad.” (See 8a, 8b.) The adverb form is used to modify a verb or an adjective. “The Tartans played so badly they lost to the last-place team, whose badly needed victory saved them from elimination.”
being as, being that Instead of “Being as I was ignorant of the facts, I kept still,” write “Because I was ignorant” or “Not knowing the facts.”
beside, besides Beside is a preposition meaning “next to.” “Sheldon enjoyed sitting beside the guest of honor.” Besides is an adverb meaning “in addition.” “Besides, he has a sense of humor.” Besides is also a preposition meaning “other than.” “Something besides shyness caused his embarrassment.”
between, among See among, between.
between you and I The preposition between always takes the objective case. “Between you and me [not I], Joe’s story sounds suspicious.” “Between us [not we], what’s going on between Bob and her [not she] is unfathomable.” (See 5a–5f.)
but that, but what “I don’t know but what [or but that] you’re right” is a wordy, imprecise way of saying “Maybe you’re right” or “I believe you’re right.”
can, may Use can to show ability. “Jake can benchpress 650 pounds.” May involves permission. “May I bench-press today?” “You may, if you can.”
capital, capitol A capital is a city that is the center of government for a state or country. Capital can also mean “wealth.” A capitol is a building in which legislators meet. “Who knows what the capital of Finland is?” “The renovated capitol is a popular attraction.”
center around Say “Class discussion centered on [or revolved around] her paper.” In this sense, the verb center means “to have one main concern” — the way a circle has a central point. (To say a discussion centers around anything is a murky metaphor.)
cite, sight, site Cite, a verb, means “to quote from or refer to.” Sight as a verb means “to see or glimpse”; as a noun it means “a view, a spectacle.” “When the police officer sighted my terrier running across the playground, she cited the leash laws.” Site, a noun, means “location.” “Standing and weeping at the site of his childhood home, he was a pitiful sight.”
climatic, climactic Climatic, from climate, refers to meteorological conditions. Saying “climatic conditions,” however, is wordy — you can usually substitute “the climate”: “Climatic conditions are [or “The climate is”] changing because of the hole in the ozone layer.” Climactic, from climax, refers to the culmination of a progression of events. “In the climactic scene, the hero drives his car off the pier.”
compare, contrast Compare has two main meanings. The first, “to liken or represent as similar,” is followed by to. “She compared her room to a jail cell.” The second, “to analyze for similarities and differences,” is generally followed by with. “The speaker compared the American educational system with the Japanese system.”
Contrast also has two main meanings. As a transitive verb, taking an object, it means “to analyze to emphasize differences” and is generally followed by with. “The speaker contrasted the social emphasis of the Japanese primary grades with the academic emphasis of ours.” As an intransitive verb, contrast means “to exhibit differences when compared.” “The sour taste of the milk contrasted sharply with its usual fresh flavor.”
complement, compliment Compliment is a verb meaning “to praise” or a noun meaning “praise.” “The professor complimented Sarah on her perceptiveness.” Complement is a verb meaning “to complete or reinforce.” “Jenn’s experiences as an intern complemented what she learned in class.”
could care less This is nonstandard English for couldn’t care less and should not be used in writing. “The cat couldn’t [not could] care less about which brand of cat food you buy.”
could of Could of is colloquial for could have and should not be used in writing.
couple of Write “a couple of drinks” when you mean two. For more than two, say “a few [or several] drinks.”
criteria, criterion Criteria is the plural of criterion, which means “a standard or requirement on which a judgment or decision is based.” “The main criteria for this job are attention to detail and good computer skills.”
data Data is a plural noun. Write “The data are” and “these data.” The singular form of data is datum — rarely used because it sounds musty. Instead, use fact, figure, or statistic.
different from, different than Different from is usually the correct form to use. “How is good poetry different from prose?” Use different than when a whole clause follows. “Violin lessons with Mr. James were different than I had imagined.”
don’t, doesn’t Don’t is the contraction of do not, and doesn’t is the contraction of does not. “They don’t want to get dressed up for the ceremony.” “The cat doesn’t [not don’t] like to be combed.”
due to Due is an adjective and must modify a noun or pronoun; it can’t modify a verb or an adjective. Begin a sentence with due to and you invite trouble: “Due to rain, the game was postponed.” Write instead, “Because of rain.” Due to works after the verb be. “His fall was due to a banana peel.” There, due modifies the noun fall.
due to the fact that A windy expression for because.
effect, affect See affect, effect.
either Use either when referring to one of two things. “Both internships sound great; I’d be happy with either.” When referring to one of three or more things, use any one or any. “Any one of our four counselors will be able to help you.”
et cetera, etc. Sharpen your writing by replacing et cetera (or its abbreviation, etc.) with exact words. Even translating the Latin expression into English (“and other things”) is an improvement, as in “high-jumping, shot-putting, and other field events.”
everybody, every body When used as an indefinite pronoun, everybody is one word. “Why is everybody on the boys’ team waving his arms?” Because everybody is singular, it is a mistake to write, “Why is everybody waving their arms?” (See 7d.) Every body written as two words refers to separate, individual bodies. “After the massacre, they buried every body in its [not their] own grave.”
everyone, every one Used as an indefinite pronoun, everyone is one word. “Everyone has his or her own ideas.” Because everyone is singular, it is incorrect to write, “Everyone has their own ideas.” (See 7d.) Every one written as two words refers to individual, distinct items. “I studied every one of the chapters.”
except, accept See accept, except.
expect In writing, avoid the informal use of expect to mean “suppose, assume, or think.” “I suppose [not expect] you’re going on the geology field trip.”
fact that This is a wordy expression that, nearly always, you can do without. Instead of “The fact that he was puny went unnoticed,” write, “That he was puny went unnoticed.” “Because [not Because of the fact that] it snowed, the game was canceled.”
farther, further In your writing, use farther to refer to literal distance. “Chicago is farther from Nome than from New York.” When you mean additional degree, time, or quantity, use further: “Sally’s idea requires further discussion.”
fewer, less Less refers to general quantity or bulk; fewer refers to separate, countable items. “Eat less pizza.” “Salad has fewer calories.”
field of In a statement such as “He took courses in the field of economics,” omit the field of to save words.
firstly The recommended usage is first (and second, not secondly; third, not thirdly; and so on).
former, latter Former means “first of two”; latter, “second of two.” They are an acceptable but heavy-handed pair, often obliging your reader to backtrack. Your writing generally will be clearer if you simply name again the persons or things you mean. Instead of “The former great artist is the master of the flowing line, while the latter is the master of color,” write, “Picasso is the master of the flowing line, while Matisse is the master of color.”
further, farther See farther, further.
get, got Get has many meanings, especially in slang and colloquial use. Some, such as the following, are not appropriate in formal writing:
To start, begin: “Let’s start [not get] painting.”
To stir the emotions: “His frequent interruptions finally started annoying [not getting to] me.”
To harm, punish, or take revenge on: “She’s going to take revenge on [not get] him.” Or better, be even more specific: “She’s going to spread rumors about him to ruin his reputation.”
good, well To modify a verb, use the adverb well, not the adjective good. “Jan dives well [not good].” Linking verbs (be, appear, become, grow, seem, prove) and verbs of the senses (such as feel, look, smell, sound, taste) call for the adjective good. “The paint job looks good.” Well is an adjective used only to refer to health. “She looks well” means that she seems to be in good health. “She looks good” means her appearance is attractive. (See 8b, 8c.)
hanged, hung Both words are the past tense of the verb hang. Hanged refers to an execution. “The murderer was hanged at dawn.” For all other situations, use hung. “Jim hung his wash on the line to dry.”
have got to In formal writing, avoid using the phrase have got to to mean “have to” or “must.” “I must [not have got to] phone them right away.”
he, she, he or she Using he to refer to an indefinite person is considered sexist; so is using she with traditionally female occupations or pastimes. However, the phrase he or she can seem wordy and awkward. For alternatives, see 18.
herself See -self, -selves.
himself See -self, -selves.
hopefully Hopefully means “with hope.” “The children turned hopefully toward the door, expecting Santa Claus.” In writing, avoid hopefully when you mean “it is to be hoped” or “let us hope.” “I hope [not Hopefully] the posse will arrive soon.”
if, whether Use whether, not if, in indirect questions and to introduce alternatives. “Father asked me whether [not if] I was planning to sleep all morning.” “I’m so confused I don’t know whether [not if] it’s day or night.”
imply, infer Imply means “to suggest”; infer means “to draw a conclusion.” “Maria implied that she was too busy to see Tom, but Tom inferred that Maria had lost interest in him.”
in, into In refers to a location or condition; into refers to the direction of movement or change. “The hero burst into the room and found the heroine in another man’s arms.”
infer, imply See imply, infer.
in regards to Write in regard to, regarding, or about.
inside of, outside of As prepositions, inside and outside do not require of. “The students were more interested in events outside [not outside of] the building than those inside [not inside of] the classroom.” In formal writing, do not use inside of to refer to time or outside of to mean “except.” “I’ll finish the assignment within [not inside of] two hours.” “He told no one except [not outside of] a few friends.”
irregardless Irregardless is a double negative. Use regardless.
is because See reason is because, reason … is.
is when is where Using these expressions results in errors in predication. “Obesity is when a person is greatly overweight.” “Biology is where students dissect frogs.” When refers to a point in time, but obesity is not a point in time; where refers to a place, but biology is not a place. Write instead, “Obesity is the condition of extreme overweight.” “Biology is a laboratory course in which students dissect frogs.” (See 12c.)
its, it’s Its is a possessive pronoun, never in need of an apostrophe. It’s is a contraction of it is. “Every new experience has its bad moments. Still, it’s exciting to explore the unknown.” (See 24g.)
it’s me, it is I Although it’s me is widely used in speech, don’t use it in formal writing. Write “It is I,” which is grammatically correct. The same applies to other personal pronouns. “It was he [not him] who started the mutiny.” (See 5.)
kind of, sort of, type of When you use kind, sort, or type — singular words — make sure that the sentence construction is singular. “That type of show offends me.” “Those types of shows offend me.” In speech, kind of and sort of are used as qualifiers. “He is sort of fat.” Avoid them in writing. “He is rather [or somewhat or slightly] fat.”
latter, former See former, latter.
lay, lie The verb lay, meaning “to put or place,” takes an object. “Lay that pistol down.” Lie, meaning “to rest or recline,” does not. “Lie on the bed until your headache goes away.” Their principal parts are lay, laid, laid and lie, lay, lain. (See 3f.)
less, fewer See fewer, less.
liable, likely Use likely to mean “plausible” or “having the potential.” “Jake is likely [not liable] to win.” Save liable for “legally obligated” or “susceptible.” “A stunt man is liable to injury.”
lie, lay See lay, lie.
like, as See as, like.
likely, liable See liable, likely.
literally Don’t sling literally around for emphasis. Because it means “strictly according to the meaning of a word (or words),” it will wreck your credibility if you are speaking figuratively. “Professor Gray literally flew down the hall” means that Gray traveled on wings. Save literally to mean that you’re reporting a fact. “Chemical wastes travel on the winds, and the skies literally rain poison.”
loose, lose Loose, an adjective, most commonly means “not fastened” or “poorly fastened.” Lose, a verb, means “to misplace” or “to not win.” “I have to be careful not to lose this button — it’s so loose.”
lots, lots of, a lot of Use these expressions only in informal speech. In formal writing, use many or much. See also a lot.
mankind This term is considered sexist by many people. Use humanity, humankind, the human race, or people instead.
may, can See can, may.
media, medium Media is the plural of medium and most commonly refers to the various forms of public communication. “Some argue that, of all the media, television is the worst for children.”
might of Might of is colloquial for might have and should not be used in writing.
most Do not use most when you mean “almost” or “nearly.” “Almost [not Most] all of the students felt that Professor Crey should receive tenure.”
must of Must of is colloquial for must have and should not be used in writing.
myself See -self, -selves.
not all that Not all that is colloquial for not very; do not use it in formal writing. “The movie was not very [not not all that] exciting.”
number, amount See amount, number.
of See could of, might of, must of, should of.
O.K., o.k., okay In formal writing, do not use any of these expressions. All right and I agree are possible substitutes.
one Like a balloon, one, meaning “a person,” tends to inflate. One one can lead to another. “When one is in college, one learns to make up one’s mind for oneself.” Avoid this pompous usage. Whenever possible, substitute people or a more specific plural noun. “When students are in college, they learn to make up their minds for themselves.”
ourselves See -self, -selves.
outside of, inside of See inside of, outside of.
percent, per cent, percentage When you specify a number, write percent (also written per cent). “Nearly 40 percent of the listeners responded to the offer.” The only time to use percentage, meaning “part,” is with an adjective, when you mention no number. “A high percentage [or a large percentage] of listeners responded.” A large number or a large proportion sounds better yet.
phenomenon, phenomena Phenomena is the plural of phenomenon, which means “an observable fact or occurrence.” “Of the many mysterious supernatural phenomena, clairvoyance is the strangest phenomenon of all.”
precede, proceed Precede means “to go before or ahead of ”; proceed means “to go forward.” “The fire drill proceeded smoothly; the children preceded the teachers onto the playground.”
principal, principle Principal means “chief,” whether used as an adjective or as a noun. “According to the principal, the school’s principal goal will be teaching reading.” Referring to money, principal means “capital.” “Investors in high-risk companies may lose their principal.” Principle, a noun, means rule or standard. “Let’s apply the principle of equality in hiring.”
proved, proven Although both forms can be used as past participles, proved is recommended. Use proven as an adjective. “They had proved their skill in match after match.” “Try this proven cough remedy.”
quote, quotation Quote is a verb meaning “to cite, to use the words of.” Quotation is a noun meaning “something that is quoted.” “The quotation [not quote] next to her photograph fits her perfectly.”
raise, rise Raise, meaning “to cause to move upward,” is a transitive verb and takes an object. Rise, meaning “to move up (on its own)” is intransitive and does not take an object: “I rose from my seat and raised my arm.”
rarely ever Rarely by itself is strong enough. “George rarely [not rarely ever] eats dinner with his family.”
real, really Real is an adjective, really an adverb. Do not use real to modify a verb or another adjective, and avoid overusing either word. “The Ambassadors is a really [not real] fine novel.” Even better: “The Ambassadors is a fine novel.”
reason is because, reason … is Reason ... is requires a clause beginning with that. Using because is nonstandard. “The reason I can’t come is that [not is because] I have the flu.” It is simpler and more direct to write, “I can’t come because I have the flu.” (See 12d.)
rise See raise, rise.
-self, -selves Don’t use a pronoun ending in -self or -selves in place of her, him, me, them, us, or you. “Nobody volunteered but Jim and me [not myself].” Use the -self pronouns to refer back to a noun or another pronoun and to lend emphasis. “We did it ourselves.” “Sarah herself is a noted musician.”
set, sit Set, meaning “to put or place,” is a transitive verb and takes an object. Sit, meaning “to be seated,” is intransitive and does not take an object. “We were asked to set our jewelry and metal objects on the counter and sit down.” (See 3f.)
shall, will; should, would The helping verb shall formerly was used with first-person pronouns. It is still used to express determination (“We shall overcome”) or to ask consent (“Shall we march?”). Otherwise, will is commonly used with all three persons. “I will enter medical school in the fall.” Should is a helping verb that expresses obligation; would, a helping verb that expresses a hypothetical condition. “I should wash the dishes before I watch TV.” “He would learn to speak English if you would give him a chance.”
she, he or she See he, she, he or she.
should of Should of is colloquial for should have and should not be used in writing.
sight See cite, sight, site.
since Sometimes using since can make a sentence ambiguous. “Since the babysitter left, the children have been watching television.” Does since here mean “because” or “from the time that”? If using since might be confusing, use an unambiguous term (because, ever since).
sit See set, sit.
site See cite, sight, site.
sort of See kind of, sort of, type of.
stationary, stationery Stationary, an adjective, means “fixed, unmoving.” “The fireplace remained stationary though the wind blew down the house.” Stationery is paper for letter writing. To spell it right, remember that letter also contains -er.
suppose to Write supposed to. “He was supposed to read a novel.”
sure Sure is an adjective, surely an adverb. Do not use sure to modify a verb or another adjective. If you mean “certainly,” write certainly or surely instead. “He surely [not sure] makes the Civil War come alive.”
than, then Than is a conjunction used in comparisons; then is an adverb indicating time. “Marlene is brainier than her sister.” “First crack six eggs; then beat them.”
that, where See where, that.
that, which Which pronoun should open a clause — that or which? If the clause adds to its sentence an idea that, however interesting, could be left out, then the clause is nonrestrictive. It should begin with which and be separated from the rest of the sentence with commas. “The vampire, which hovered nearby, leaped for Sarah’s throat.”
If the clause is essential to your meaning, it is restrictive. It should begin with that and should not have commas around it. “The vampire that Mel brought from Transylvania leaped for Sarah’s throat.” The clause indicates not just any old vampire but one in particular. (See 21e.)
Don’t use which to refer vaguely to an entire clause. Instead of “Jack was an expert drummer in high school, which won him a scholarship,” write “Jack’s skill as a drummer won him …” (See 6b.)
that, who, which, whose See who, which, that, whose.
themselves See -self, -selves.
then, than See than, then.
there, their, they’re There is an adverb indicating place. Their is a possessive pronoun. They’re is a contraction of they are. “After playing tennis there for three hours, Lamont and Laura went to change their clothes because they’re going out to dinner.”
to, too, two To is a preposition. Too is an adverb meaning “also” or “in excess.” Two is a number. “Janet wanted to go too, but she was too sick to travel for two days. Instead, she went to bed.”
toward, towards Toward is preferred in the United States, towards in Britain.
try and Use try to. “I’ll try to [not try and] attend the opening performance of your play.”
type of See kind of, sort of, type of.
unique Nothing can be more, less, or very unique. Unique means “one of a kind.” (See 8e.)
use to Write used to. “Jeffrey used to have a beard, but now he is clean-shaven.”
wait for, wait on Wait for means “await”; wait on means “to serve.” “While waiting for his friends, George decided to wait on one more customer.”
well, good See good, well.
where, that Although speakers sometimes use where instead of that, you should not do so in writing. “I heard on the news that [not where] it got hot enough to fry eggs on car hoods.”
where … at, where … to The colloquial use of at or to after where is redundant. Write “Where were you?” not “Where were you at?” “I know where she was rushing [not rushing to].”
whether See if, whether.
which, that See that, which.
who, which, that, whose Who refers to people, which to things and ideas. “Was it Pogo who said, ‘We have met the enemy and he is us’?” “The blouse, which was green, accented her dark skin.” That refers to things but can also be used for a class of people. “The team that increases sales the most will get a bonus.” Because of which can be cumbersome, use whose even with things. “The mountain, whose snowy peaks were famous the world over, was covered by fog.” See also that, which.
who, whom Who is used as a subject, whom as an object. In “Whom do I see?” Whom is the object of see. In “Who goes there?” Who is the subject of “goes.” (See also 5a.)
who’s, whose Who’s is a contraction of who is or who has. “Who’s going with Phil?” Whose is a possessive pronoun. “Bill is a conservative politician whose ideas are unlikely to change.”
whose, who, which, that See who, which, that, whose.
will, shall See shall, will; should, would.
would, should See shall, will; should, would.
would of Would of is colloquial for would have and should not be used in writing.
you You, meaning “a person,” occurs often in conversation. “When you go to college, you have to work hard.” In writing, use one or a specific, preferably plural noun. “When students go to college, they have to work hard.” See one and 18c.
your, you’re Your is a possessive pronoun; you’re is the contraction of you are. “You’re lying! It was your handwriting on the envelope.”
yourself, yourselves See -self, -selves.