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Not every source you locate will be equally reliable. Print materials and Web sites recommended by your library have been screened by professionals, but each has its own point of view or approach, often a necessary bias to restrict its focus. To determine what evidence is best, do what experienced researchers do–ask key questions about the author, the publisher, and the source itself.

Who Is Responsible for the Source?

Learn the credentials, affiliation, and reputation of each author and publisher you plan to use. Any source you use to shape or support your ideas should be reliable and trustworthy.

Credentials. Check for the author’s background in any preface, introduction, or concluding note in an article or a book. For a Web site, look for links leading to other articles by the author or for a link to author information. If necessary, conduct a Web search to learn more about an author’s background and expertise.

Reputation. Keep in mind that a good measure of someone’s credibility is the regard of other experts. Does your instructor or a campus expert recognize or recommend the author? Does a search for the author on Google Scholar produce other sources that cite the author? Is the publisher well established and known for producing quality materials?

Material with No Author Identified. If no author is given, try to identify the sponsor, publisher, or editor. On a Web site, check the home page or search for a disclaimer, contact information, or an About page. Avoid any source with no identifiable author or publisher.

What Type of Source Is It?

Sources can generally be categorized as either primary or secondary, and both types of sources should be carefully examined for authorship and bias. Most research projects benefit from a combination of primary and secondary sources.

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Primary Sources. A primary source is a firsthand account written by an eyewitness or a participant. It contains raw data and immediate impressions. Examples include diaries, letters, news articles written by eyewitnesses to an event, and official reports and data such as census or labor statistics.

Secondary Sources. A secondary source is an analysis or interpretation of information contained in one or more primary sources. Secondary sources include articles and books based on primary sources (but not articles written by eyewitnesses). A biography of Peter the Great by a modern historian would be a secondary source because it relies on the historian’s interpretation of events described in primary sources. An autobiography, on the other hand, is a firsthand source because it is written by the person who experienced the events it covers.

Is the Source Scholarly or Popular?

Most secondary sources can be considered either scholarly or popular, depending on the publisher or author affiliation.

Scholarly Sources. Sources of scholarly information generally include academic journals and Web sites as well as books published by university presses. The material is written by scholars or scientists in the field, and it is usually reviewed by other experts before publication. Scholarly sources generally include extensive in-text citations and bibliographies to document their research. Although scholarly sources are usually quite reputable, they are written for an expert audience; thus, some materials may be too specialized or high level for your use. Examples of scholarly sources include the Journal of the American Medical Association and the Congressional Quarterly.

Popular Sources. Unlike scholarly sources, popular sources are usually written by journalists and other non-scholarly writers and are published for a broader audience. Although they are not typically reviewed by experts in the field, reputable popular sources are edited for clarity and accuracy by a publishing staff. You may find popular publications, such as those by the New York Times, Scientific American, CNN.com, and the Smithsonian Institution (si.edu), to be excellent sources of background information; they may even provide important evidence for your research project if the author is well regarded.

What Is the Source’s Purpose and Bias?

Whether primary or secondary, popular or scholarly, reputable or not, authors and publishers often have a purpose in mind when they publish a text. Your job as a researcher is to critically question whether the author or publisher is motivated by a political, a religious, a corporate, or another agenda. To understand the purpose or intention of a source, ask critical questions: Is its purpose to explain or inform? To report new research? To persuade? To add a viewpoint? To sell a product? Does the source acknowledge its purpose in its preface, mission statement, or About Us or FAQ (Frequently Asked Questions) page?

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In addition to being aware of a source’s purpose, you should watch for an author’s or a publisher’s point of view, which may shape the source’s contents. Bias is a preference for a particular side of an issue. Because most authors and publishers have opinions on their topics, there’s little point in asking whether they are biased. Instead, ask how that viewpoint affects the presentation of information and opinion. What are the author’s or sponsor’s allegiances? Does the source treat one side of an issue more favorably than another? Is that bias hidden or stated? Is any important information–especially evidence that might refute this source’s argument–notably missing? A strong bias does not invalidate a source. However, if you spot such bias early, you can look for other viewpoints to avoid lopsided analyses.

When Was the Source Produced or Published?

In most fields, new information and discoveries are reported every year, so a source needs to be up-to-date or at least still timely. New information may appear first in Web postings, media broadcasts, and newspapers and eventually in magazines, though such sources may not have allowed time for experts to consider the information thoughtfully. Later, as material is more fully examined, it may appear in scholarly articles and books. For this reason, older materials can supply a valuable historical, theoretical, or analytical focus.