Chapter 1. Who Am I?

Synopsis

Human Development Video Activity

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You must read each slide, and complete any questions on the slide, in sequence.

foreclosure

An identity phase in which an individual makes a commitment to an identity, set of values, or set of beliefs without significant personal exploration. Foreclosure may be the result of a person adopting a ready-made identity provided by others, such as parents, without seriously considering alternatives.

identity achievement

An identity phase in which an individual has struggled with and explored questions of identity and purpose and has formed a direction for the future. This commitment does not mean an end to exploration. In fact, exploration and commitment are in regular interplay during identity achievement.

identity

The consistent collection of physical and mental characteristics that define an individual as unique.

identity diffusion

An identity phase in which an individual has not yet begun to examine life and values in effort to determine a personal identity. Because of this lack of exploration and commitment, diffused individuals may demonstrate apathy and lack of direction.

identity versus role confusion

The fifth stage in Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development that generally occurs between the ages of 12 and 18 that is characterized by the effort to move away from confusion about who you are and what is important to you toward a more developed sense of who you are and of your place in your community and society.

moratorium

An identity phase in which an individual explores and maybe even tries on identities but has not yet committed to any particular one.

Who Am I?

Authors

Three graduates in their caps and gowns holding their diplomas

Thomas E. Ludwig, Hope College

Raechel Soicher, American River College

Synopsis

After examining some of the theoretical foundations of identity development, your exploration will continue when you observe several teenagers who are also on their journey of identity development.

REFERENCES

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Allison, B. N., & Schultz, J. B. (2001). Interpersonal identity formation during early adolescence. Adolescence, 36, 509-523.

Balistreri, E., Busch-Rossnagel, N. A., & Geisinger, K. F. (1995). Development and preliminary validation of the Ego Identity Process Questionnaire. Journal of Adolescence, 18, 179-192.

Berzonsky, M.D. (2011). A social-cognitive perspective on identity construction. In Schwartz, S.J., Luyckx, K., & Vignoles, V.L. (Eds.) (2011) Handbook of Identity Theory and Research. New York: Springer Science.

Bilsker, D., & Marcia, J. E. (1991). Adaptive regression and ego identity. Journal of Adolescence, 14, 75-84.

Bilsker, D., Schiedel, D., & Marcia, J. (1988). Sex differences in identity status. Sex Roles, 18, 231-236.

Coatsworth, J.D., Sharp, E.H., Palen, L., Darling, N., Cumsille, P., & Marta, E. (2005). Exploring adolescent self-defining leisure activities and identity experiences across three countries. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 29, 361-370.

Cramer, P. (2001). Identification and its relation to identity development. Journal of Personality, 69, 667-688.

Dunkel, C. S. (2000). Possible selves as a mechanism for identity exploration. Journal of Adolescence, 23, 519-529.

Dunkel, C. S., & Anthis, K. S. (2001). The role of possible selves in identity formation: A short-term longitudinal study. Journal of Adolescence, 24, 765-776.

Erikson, E. H. (1956). The problem of ego identity. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 4, 56-121.

Erikson, E. H. (1959). Identity and the life cycle: Selected papers. Psychological Issues, 1, 1-171.

Erikson, E. H. (1964). A memorandum on identity and Negro youth. Journal of Social Issues, 20, 29-42.

Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and Crisis. New York: Norton.

Erikson, E. H. (1970). Autobiographic notes on the identity crisis. Daedalus, 99, 730-759.

Erikson, E. H. (1988). Youth: Fidelity and diversity. Daedalus, 117, 1-24.

Klaassen, D. W., & McDonald, M. J. (2002). Quest and identity development: Re-examining pathways for existential search. International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 12, 189-200.

Klimstra, T.A., Luyck, K., Hale, W.A., Frijns, T., van Lier, P.A.C., & Meeus, W.H.J. (2010). Short-term fluctuations in identity: Introducing a micro-level approach to identity formation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 99, 191-202.

Kroger, J. (2000). Ego identity status research in the new millennium. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 24, 145-148.

Kroger, J. (2002). Identity processes and contents through the years of late adulthood. Identity, 2, 81-99.

Luyck, K., Soenens, B., Vansteenkiste, M., Goossens, L., & Berzonsky, M.D. (2007). Parental psychological control and dimensions of identity formation in emerging adulthood. Journal of Family Psychology, 21, 546-550.

Marcia, J. (1967). Ego identity status: Relationship to change in self-esteem, “general maladjustment,” and authoritarianism. Journal of Personality, 35, 119-133.

Marcia, J. E. (1966). Development and validation of ego-identity status. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 3, 551-558.

Marcia, J. E. (1980). Identity in adolescence. In J. Adelson (Ed.), Handbook of adolescent psychology. New York: Wiley.

Marcia, J. E., Waterman, A. S., Matteson, D. R., Archer, S. L., & Orlofsky, J. L. (Eds.) (1993). Ego identity: A handbook for psychosocial research. New York: Springer-Verlag.

Marcia, J. E. (2002). Identity and psychosocial development in adulthood. Identity, 2, 7-28.

Meeus, W., Iedema, J., Helsen, M., & Vollebergh, W. (1999). Patterns of adolescent identity development: Review of literature and longitudinal analysis. Developmental Review, 19, 419-461.

Orlofsky, J. L., Marcia, J. E., & Lesser, I. M. (1973). Ego identity status and the intimacy versus isolation crisis of young adulthood. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 27, 211-219.

Pempek, T.A., Yermolayeva, Y.A., & Calvert, S.L. (2009). College students’ social networking experiences on Facebook. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 30, 227-238.

Phoenix, T. L. (2001). Who am I?: Identity formation, youth, and therapeutic recreation. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 35, 348-356.

Serafini, T. E., & Adams, G. R. (2002). Functions of identity: Scale construction and validation. Identity, 2, 361-389.

Slugoski, B. R., Marcia, J. E., & Koopman, R. F. (1984). Cognitive and social interactional characteristics of ego identity statuses in college males. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 47, 646-661.

Toder, N. L., & Marcia, J. E. (1973). Ego identity status and response to conformity pressure in college women. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 26, 287-294.

Torres, V., Jones, S.R., & Renn, K.A. (2009). Identity Development Theories in Student Affairs: Origins, Current Status, and New Approaches. Journal of College Student Development, 50, 577-596.

Umaña-Taylor, A.J., Bhanot, R., & Shin, N. (2006). Ethnic Identity Formation During Adolescence, The Critical Role of Families. Journal of Family Issues, 27, 390-414.

Waterman, A. S. (1999). Identity, the identity statuses, and identity status development: A contemporary statement. Developmental Review, 19, 591-621.

Yoder, A. E. (2000). Barriers to ego identity status formation: A contextual qualification of Marcia’s identity status paradigm. Journal of Adolescence, 23, 95-106.

Theoretical Foundations of Identity Formation: Erikson

As teenagers become more independent, one of their most important tasks is to form a sense of their own identity, a sense of themselves as distinct both from their parents and from their peers.

Erik Erikson claimed that identity formation is the biggest challenge of adolescence. As part of his theory of psychosocial development, he argued that most teens are faced with a crisis called identity versus role confusion. During this stage, adolescents are likely to move in and out of various phases of exploration in effort to establish their independence and sense of self.

According to Erikson, the goal of this psychosocial stage is identity achievement. An adolescent or emerging adult who attains identity achievement has struggled with and/or explored questions of identity and purpose and has formed and/or committed to a direction for the future. This commitment may include a provisional career choice and/or a set of values and beliefs on key self-defining topics, such as religion, politics, family, friendships, dating, or gender roles. Researchers have found that individuals with the status of identity achievement tend to be mature, balanced thinkers.

Theoretical Foundations of Identity Formation: Marcia

Perhaps the most influential of Erikson’s followers on the topic of identity formation is James Marcia. Marcia developed techniques for measuring a person’s progress through the identity formation process. Marcia explicitly identified two dimensions that characterize identity formation.

Identity exploration refers to the degree to which individuals have explored their own identity and struggled with identity-defining questions.

Identity commitment refers to the degree of commitment that individuals feel toward the identity choices that they have made up to this point.

Marcia continued to delve more deeply into Erikson’s identity development crisis of adolescence by dissecting it into four phases:

identity diffusion,
foreclosure,
moratorium, and
identity achievement.

Marcia’s Phases of Identity Development

No two passages through the challenges of identity development are the same as each individual is unique as are his/her surrounding social influences. Identity formation is a long, slow process, and not everyone reaches the status of identity achievement. According to Marcia, there are four phases of identity development. Any adolescent may pass through, skip, or stop off at any one of these points during his/her identity journey.

Identity diffusion represents a period of apathy. Developmentalists do believe that during the first half of adolescence many teens go through a period of identity diffusion, in which they are relatively uninterested in questions of identity and are definitely not ready to commit to a set of values or beliefs. Teenagers in this status are drifting through life without a clear sense of direction. Some may remain in this status all through adolescence and into adulthood.

Foreclosure represents a commitment formed without adequate exploration. Adolescents may take the short-cut of foreclosure when they avoid struggling with their own identity and simply build an identity based on the values and beliefs of others, such as parents, role models, or even some powerful or persuasive group. Depending on the individual or group on which a teen’s identity is modeled, this process may not yield a positive outcome especially if, for example, the group or individual promotes violence, destructive behavior, or devalues individual, independent thinking.

Moratorium is signaled by a high score on exploration and a low score on commitment. Eventually, many teens or emerging adults do begin to struggle with questions of identity by trying out different roles and experimenting with different lifestyles while making no commitment to any of them. Two common sites for moratorium are college and military service. Both of these institutions provide opportunities to try out different roles on a temporary basis while putting off any binding decisions about the future.

Identity achievement is exemplified by those who have committed themselves to a particular identity while remaining willing to explore their identities further if the situation requires it. Those in identity achievement demonstrate both high degrees of personal exploration and commitment simultaneously.

This table has 3 columns. In the left-most column, there are listed Marcia’s 4 identity phases. For each phase, the table shows a column for the level of exploration and the level of commitment. For identity diffusion, “low” appears in the level of exploration column, and “low” appears in the level of commitment column. For foreclosure, “low” appears in the level of exploration column, and “high” appears in the level of commitment column. For moratorium, “high” appears in the level of exploration column, and “low” appears in the level of commitment column. For identity achievement, “high” appears in the level of exploration column, and “high” appears in the level of commitment column.

Summary and Review

Erik Erikson claimed that the identity versus role confusion crisis, which is the struggle to form an individual identity, is the chief challenge for adolescents and emerging adults.
James Marcia elaborated on Erik Erikson’s work by proposing that identity formation has two dimensions: exploration, which is the degree to which a person has explored his or her own identity and has struggled with identity issues, and commitment, which is the degree of commitment to the identity choices that a person has made so far.
Marcia proposed four phases of identity formation: identity diffusion (low commitment, low exploration), foreclosure (high commitment, low exploration), moratorium (low commitment, high exploration), and identity achievement (high commitment, high exploration).
Researchers have found that identity diffusion and foreclosure are more common in early adolescence, and in general, most college students and emerging adults have progressed beyond these categories and are moving toward identity achievement.

Assessment: Check Your Understanding

Now, let’s see if you can apply what you have learned about the central role of exploration and commitment in establishing an identity. On the next few screens, you will observe several teens. As you view each video clip, listen for evidence about the person’s degree of exploration of and level of commitment to a life plan, set of values, career path, etc.

Watch this clip of Michael, who is 17 years old and a junior in high school.

Question 1.1

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Correct! Michael seems very committed to becoming a doctor. For example, he is actively choosing to take many science classes as part of his plan to become a doctor.

Sorry. Michael seems very committed to becoming a doctor. For example, he is actively choosing to take many science classes as part of his plan to become a doctor.

Question 1.2

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Correct! Michael first decided that he wanted to be a doctor when he was 6 years old. How much career exploration is realistic for a 6 year old? Michael knows that he has family members who are doctors, but he is not sure what kind of medicine they practice, so it appears that he is not terribly informed about what being a doctor actually means. When asked about how he is going to reach his dream, he speaks of only taking science classes in high school and does not seem to know much about the process of becoming a doctor. Michael’s motivations are truly honorable, but it does not sound as if he has explored his life plan deeply.

Sorry. Michael first decided that he wanted to be a doctor when he was 6 years old. How much career exploration is realistic for a 6 year old? Michael knows that he has family members who are doctors, but he is not sure what kind of medicine they practice, so it appears that he is not terribly informed about what being a doctor actually means. When asked about how he is going to reach his dream, he speaks of only taking science classes in high school and does not seem to know much about the process of becoming a doctor. Michael’s motivations are truly honorable, but it does not sound as if he has explored his life plan deeply.

Assessment: Check Your Understanding (continued)

Watch this clip of Michael, who is 17 years old and a junior in high school.

Question 1.3

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Correct! Michael describes how his family members who are doctors have “rubbed off” on him. This description is the hallmark of foreclosure, which is a phase defined by a high level of commitment, which Michael certainly has, as well as by a low level of exploration, which Michael also demonstrates.

Sorry. Michael describes how his family members who are doctors have “rubbed off” on him. This description is the hallmark of foreclosure, which is a phase defined by a high level of commitment, which Michael certainly has, as well as by a low level of exploration, which Michael also demonstrates.

Assessment: Check Your Understanding

Watch this clip of Doris, who is 17 years old and a senior in high school.

Question 1.4

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Correct! Doris demonstrates a high degree of commitment to a life plan. She wants to go to college and has taken steps to achieve this goal by applying to one school that she has already visited. She knows what she would like to study because she has some fairly well-developed ideas about what career she would like to pursue. She continues to stay committed to this career plan even though her mother has some different ideas about what her daughter should do for a living!

Sorry. Doris demonstrates a high degree of commitment to a life plan. She wants to go to college and has taken steps to achieve this goal by applying to one school that she has already visited. She knows what she would like to study because she has some fairly well-developed ideas about what career she would like to pursue. She continues to stay committed to this career plan even though her mother has some different ideas about what her daughter should do for a living!

Question 1.5

ImnzGxESogrumU599wvsclenczISpA2RCx99FDifspW58uuvJG+/nn5hGsnjYymXUFX4ACvsEP/0bF3xcfyNPL33sxwhYwbSz1uaCT3wz1/yUCLDr4y/8OKVG+aCeDt6iNkv3n8Qj6LJa1k2NXv5JrdNuWDjXu9rZmr7EM1fdtWb6T7Zv+eQ0hjMngraQIOu+9TIsjYw8KMv26qKuQxilEL+8o/pud/cU2KkywPyT1iGaZk5lbMma88qO58=

Correct! Doris refers to experience that she has with the 52nd Street Project, which involves working with children and theater. While she clearly enjoyed working with this project, she sounds open to other options that would allow her to combine her interests in theater and children. Since this area is different work from what she has observed in her family, she obviously had to do put in some effort to discover and acquire this work experience. She demonstrates a high degree of exploration because she has tried out work to see if she likes it and is open to exploring other options that would combine her interests.

Sorry. Doris refers to experience that she has with the 52nd Street Project, which involves working with children and theater. While she clearly enjoyed working with this project, she sounds open to other options that would allow her to combine her interests in theater and children. Since this area is different work from what she has observed in her family, she obviously had to do put in some effort to discover and acquire this work experience. She demonstrates a high degree of exploration because she has tried out work to see if she likes it and is open to exploring other options that would combine her interests

Assessment: Check Your Understanding (continued)

Watch this clip of Doris, who is 17 years old and a senior in high school.

Question 1.6

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Correct! Doris does have an idea of what career area she would like to pursue but seems open to specific jobs within that area. While she does know some things that she is not interested in (like being a teacher), her main criteria for her career is that it involves working with theater and children. She does not list specific jobs that she wants, so it seems as if she is open to more exploration.

Sorry. Doris does have an idea of what career area she would like to pursue but seems open to specific jobs within that area. While she does know some things that she is not interested in (like being a teacher), her main criteria for her career is that it involves working with theater and children. She does not list specific jobs that she wants, so it seems as if she is open to more exploration.

Question 1.7

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Correct! Doris demonstrates a high level of commitment and a high level of exploration, so she represents identity achievement.

Sorry. Doris demonstrates a high level of commitment and a high level of exploration, so she represents identity achievement.

Assessment: Check Your Understanding

Watch this very short clip of Olivier, who is 17 years old and is a senior in high school.

Question 1.8

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Correct! Olivier’s only plan seems to be to “probably” go back to Canada. “Probably” is not exactly a word of commitment. When asked, he does not mention a particular college or major that he wants to pursue. At this point, he seems to have a low level of commitment to a life plan.

Sorry. Olivier’s only plan seems to be to “probably” go back to Canada. “Probably” is not exactly a word of commitment. When asked, he does not mention a particular college or major that he wants to pursue. At this point, he seems to have a low level of commitment to a life plan.

Question 1.9

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Correct! Olivier does not sound terribly interested in or excited about being a senior or applying to college. He does not provide any evidence that he has explored any options for this future. In this video, he seems to show a low level of exploration about the next phase of his life.

Sorry. Olivier does not sound terribly interested in or excited about being a senior or applying to college. He does not provide any evidence that he has explored any options for this future. In this video, he seems to show a low level of exploration about the next phase of his life.

Question 1.10

L4rAcWToY0famHJGPmUA9/n/59pIlLGYuuMS83r4SyEv5OpgWUJD43XheMjcFTAxs5d6bJG6U/psYSTql2iU4jZr0ONEkw11SIiZ/hUgL4Y0RiKbRXbhkbtE3byTfHutSFyCxs6wcXQUTb+ugLQQ0zaxoXReJhiZQVbyjoBEmeXQIqm++CrJYvn3X7xhUvQImQB8TwNd5UUSWGCy3ZwufOadgxPgCCurNXknzREoRS/23cCf19+Wbx1WzZPE610xJKGM5Vj+G9qCFYfTvBtDapKe6HZwgg/YWYpmwi0vtl/8ki5FP6mPAUAGX2jBxm8b+/LSew6A/bKXd2A5Eq/X0aqhkLYs2+jO

Correct! In this short clip, Olivier appears very apathetic about his future. He demonstrates a low level of commitment and a low level of exploration, so he represents identity diffusion.

Sorry. In this short clip, Olivier appears very apathetic about his future. He demonstrates a low level of commitment and a low level of exploration, so he represents identity diffusion.

Assessment: Check Your Understanding

Watch this clip of Alvin, who is 17 years old and a junior in high school.

Question 1.11

mglUGYefB73CduSYr6qcskpA132cohPx9Y1mF19lQ8sQOKtCPWpiPfwUvj+onR79HpcMK9CAiPoJKGii5alMSxM7rjtL1+056SYNTQAvXS8yY0lFsXGUV3G33K7EL3/hHuepQ9IEwaqwTLuhtRdAPv7wUNSipc+7c1gCyZAruTwXw5vgucs4tA5YDkGTPG69ytILb5tZFdd5Bb5qDzt5sHwaIcuMmHeheZMuZesU3P+BRg3j9YtU2TnXwe/8F9QvCU3n9zNX7P9kxogo2twBpOgIIS/eOBfN1wSy1X0PKNmJB41j0g1coA==

Correct! While Alvin seems to have many ideas for a career in the music field, he does not seem particularly committed to one particular path. He mentions everything from writing for a music magazine to being a music producer or an audio engineer. He even goes so far as to say that “…I don’t really have anything specific that I want to do yet because, you know, communications is a really broad major...”

Sorry. While Alvin seems to have many ideas for a career in the music field, he does not seem particularly committed to one particular path. He mentions everything from writing for a music magazine to being a music producer or an audio engineer. He even goes so far as to say that “…I don’t really have anything specific that I want to do yet because, you know, communications is a really broad major...”

Question 1.12

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Correct! This is where Alvin’s ideas for a possible career come in to play. It sounds as if he is going to use his communications major to figure out more about these different career choices. He can’t “put a finger on” exactly what he wants to do, but the fact that he likes having a lot of “doors open” to him implies that he is open to exploring his options and to learning about what might be available to him.

Sorry. This is where Alvin’s ideas for a possible career come in to play. It sounds as if he is going to use his communications major to figure out more about these different career choices. He can’t “put a finger on” exactly what he wants to do, but the fact that he likes having a lot of “doors open” to him implies that he is open to exploring his options and to learning about what might be available to him.

Question 1.13

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Correct! Alvin demonstrates a low level of commitment and a high level of exploration, which is characteristic of moratorium.

Sorry. Alvin demonstrates a low level of commitment and a high level of exploration, which is characteristic of moratorium.

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