SUMMARY

The Nature of the Child

1. All theories of development acknowledge that school-age children become more independent and capable in many ways.

2. Erikson emphasized industry, when children busily strive to master various tasks. If they are unable to do so, they feel inferior. Freud described latency, when psychosexual needs are quiet.

3. Children develop their self-concept during middle childhood, basing it on a more realistic assessment of their competence than they had in earlier years.

4. Self-respect is always helpful, but high self-esteem may reduce effort and is not valued in every culture. Low self-esteem is also harmful.

5. Both daily hassles and major stresses take a toll on children, with accumulated stresses more likely to impair development than any single event on its own. Resilience is aided by the child’s interpretation of the situation and the availability of supportive adults, peers, and institutions.

Families and Children

6. Families influence children in many ways, as do genes and peers. Although most siblings share a childhood home and parents, each sibling experiences different (nonshared) circumstances within the family.

7. The five functions of a supportive family are to satisfy children’s physical needs, to encourage learning, to support friendships, to protect self-respect, and to provide a safe, stable, and harmonious home.

8. The most common family structure worldwide is the nuclear family, usually with other relatives nearby. Other two-parent families include adoptive, same-sex, grandparent, and step-families, each of which is capable of functioning well for children. However, each also has vulnerabilities.

9. On average, children have fewer emotional problems and learn more in school if they live with two parents rather than one, especially if the two have a good parental alliance, so that both adults are caregivers.

10. Single-parent families have higher rates of change—for example, in where they live and who belongs to the family. On average, such families have less income, which may cause stress. Nonetheless, some single parents are better parents than they would be if the child’s other parent were in the household.

11. Income affects family function, for two-parent as well as single-parent households. Poor children are at greater risk for emotional and behavioral problems because the stresses that often accompany poverty hinder effective parenting.

12. No matter what the family SES, instability and conflict are harmful. Children suffer even when the conflict does not involve them directly, but their parents or siblings fight.

The Peer Group

13. Peers teach crucial social skills during middle childhood. Each cohort of children has a culture, passed down from slightly older children. Close friends are wanted and needed.

14. Popular children may be cooperative and easy to get along with or may be competitive and aggressive. Children’s judgment of popularity is affected by culture as well as the age of the children.

15. Rejected children may be neglected, aggressive, or withdrawn. Aggressive and withdrawn children have difficulty with social cognition; their interpretation of the normal give-and-take of childhood is impaired.

16. Bullying is common among school-age children and has long-term consequences for both bullies and victims. Bullies themselves may be admired, which makes their behavior more difficult to stop.

17. Overall, a multifaceted, long-term, whole-school approach—with parents, teachers, and bystanders working together—seems the best way to halt bullying.

Children’s Moral Values

18. School-age children seek to differentiate right from wrong. Peer values, cultural standards, and family practices are all part of their personal morality.

19. Children advance in moral thinking as they mature. Kohlberg described three levels of moral reasoning, each related to cognitive maturity. His description has been criticized for ignoring cultural and gender differences and for stressing rationality at the expense of emotions.

20. When values conflict, children often choose loyalty to peers over adult standards of behavior. As children grow older, especially when they discuss moral issues, they develop more thoughtful answers to moral questions, considering intentions as well as consequences.