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SUMMARY

The study of human development is a science that seeks to understand how people change or remain the same over time. As a science, it begins with questions and hypotheses and then uses various methods to gather empirical data.
Science needed to help humans thrive, although human judgment is always part of the process. For that reason, researchers draw conclusions based on empirical data. Then replication confirms, modifies, or refutes the conclusions of a scientific study.
The universality of human development and the uniqueness of each individual’s development are both evident in nature (the genes) and nurture (the environment); no person is quite like another. Nature and nurture always interact, and each human characteristic is affected by that interaction.
Crucial to the study of nature and nurture is the concept of differential susceptibility—the idea that certain genes increase or decrease the likelihood that a child will be affected by the environment.
Within each person, every aspect of development interacts with the others, but it is useful to divide development into three domains – biosocial, cognitive, and psychosocial.

All kinds of people, of every age, culture, and background, are studied by developmental scientists. In studying human variations, one pitfall to avoid is the difference-equals-deficit error. Sexual orientation is an example of a difference that is assumed by some to be a deficit.
Culture, ethnicity, and race are social constructions, concepts created by society, that nonetheless have an impact on human development. Culture includes beliefs and patterns; ethnicity refers to ancestral heritage. Many social scientists prefer not to use that term “race” because it has been destructive.
Socioeconomic status (SES) is an important influence on human development, affecting a person’s opportunities, health, and even abilities at every age. As with other differences among people, developmentalists seek to find the balance between recognizing similarities and respecting differences.

Time is a crucial variable in studying human development. A critical period is a time when something must occur to ensure normal development or the only time when an abnormality might occur. Many developments can occur more easily—but not exclusively—at a particular time, called a sensitive period.
Urie Bronfenbrenner’s ecological-systems or bioecological approach notes that each child is situated within larger systems of family, school, community, and culture. Changes within a person, or changes in the context, affect all other aspects of the system.
Certain experiences or innovations shape people of each cohort because they are members of a particular generation who share the experience of significant historical events.
Throughout life, human development is plastic. Plasticity emphasizes that it is possible for individuals to change their characteristics and behavior as they develop, although it is also true that their childhood experiences affect later development.
A dynamic-systems approach to development emphasizes that change is ongoing, with each part of development affecting every other part. Continuity (sameness) and discontinuity (sudden shifts) are part of every life.

Commonly used research methods when studying people are scientific observation, the experiment, and the survey. Each can provide insight and discoveries, yet none are without flaws. Replication, or using another method to study the same topic is needed.
An additional challenge for developmentalists is to study change over time. Two traditional research designs are often used: cross-sectional research (comparing people of different ages) and longitudinal research (studying the same people over time).
Both traditional methods to study human develop have limitations. A better method may be cross-sequential research (combining the two other methods).

A correlation shows that two variables are related. However, it does not prove that one variable causes the other: The relationship of variables may be opposite to the one expected, or both may be the result of a third variable.
Ethical behavior is crucial in all the sciences. Not only must participants be protected and data kept confidential (primary concerns of IRBs), but results must be fairly reported and honestly interpreted. Scientists must be mindful of the implications of their research.
Appropriate application of scientific research depends partly on the training and integrity of the scientists. The most important ethical question is whether scientists are designing, conducting, analyzing, publishing, and applying the research that is most critically needed.