What Theories Contribute

Each major theory discussed in this chapter has contributed to our understanding of human development (see Table 2.4):

  1. Psychoanalytic theories make us aware of the impact of early-childhood experiences, remembered or not, on subsequent development.

  2. Behaviorism shows the effect that immediate responses, associations, and examples have on learning, moment by moment and over time.

  3. Cognitive theories bring an understanding of intellectual processes, including the fact that thoughts and beliefs affect every aspect of our development.

  4. Sociocultural theories remind us that development is embedded in a rich and multifaceted cultural context, evident in every social interaction.

  5. Universal theories stress that human differences are less significant than characteristics that are shared by all humans, in every place and era.

No comprehensive view of development can ignore any of these theories, yet each has encountered severe criticism. Psychoanalytic theory has been faulted for being too subjective; behaviorism, for being too mechanistic; cognitive theory, for undervaluing emotions; sociocultural theory, for neglecting individuals; and universal theories, for slighting cultural, gender, and economic variations. Most developmentalists prefer an eclectic perspective, choosing what they consider the best aspects of each theory. Rather than adopt any one of these theories exclusively, they make selective use of all of them.

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Obviously, all theories reflect the personal background of the theorist (Demorest, 2004), as do all criticisms of theories. Being eclectic, not tied to any one theory, is beneficial because everyone, scientist as well as layperson, tends to be biased. It is easy to dismiss alternative points of view, but using all five theories opens our eyes and minds to aspects of development that we might otherwise ignore. As one overview of seven developmental theories (including those explained here) concludes, “Because no one theory satisfactorily explains development, it is critical that developmentalists be able to draw on the content, methods, and theoretical concepts of many theories” (Miller, 2011, p. 437).

As you will see in many later chapters, theories provide a fresh look at behavior. Imagine a parent and a teacher discussing a child’s actions. Each suggests a possible explanation that makes the other say, “I never thought of that.” If they listen to each other with an open mind, together they understand the child better.

Having five theories is like having five perceptive observers. All five are not always on target, but it is better to use theory to expand perception than to stay in one narrow groove. A hand functions best with five fingers, although each finger is different and some fingers are more useful than others.

SUMMING UP   Theories are needed to suggest hypotheses, to spur investigation, and, finally, to collect data and form conclusions so that empirical evidence can replace untested assumptions. All five of the major theories have met with valid criticism, but each has also advanced our understanding. Most developmentalists are eclectic, making selective use of all these theories and others. This helps guard against bias and keeps scientists, parents, students, and everyone else open to alternative explanations for the complexity of human life.

WHAT HAVE YOU LEARNED?

  1. Question 2.26

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    The main criticism is that psychoanalytic theory is subjective and beyond the scope of scientific investigation. The contribution is that psychoanalytic theories have made us aware of the impact of early childhood experiences, remembered or not, on subsequent development.

  2. Question 2.27

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    Criticism of behaviorism states that it is deterministic and mechanistic. Behaviorism's contribution has demonstrated the effect that immediate responses, associations, and examples have on learning.

  3. Question 2.28

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    The criticism of cognitive theory is that it tends to ignore emotion. The contribution of cognitive theories has brought an understanding of intellectual processes and how our thoughts and beliefs affect every aspect of our development.

  4. Question 2.29

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    Criticism of sociocultural theory states that it ignores the voice and self–direction of the individual. Sociocultural theories have reminded us that development is embedded in a rich and multifaceted cultural context, which is evident in every social interaction.

  5. Question 2.30

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    Universal theory ignores cultural, economic, and gender differences. However, universal theories stress that human differences are less significant than those characteristics that are shared by all humans.

  6. Question 2.31

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    Being eclectic, or not tied to any one theory, is beneficial since everyone tends to be biased. It is easy to dismiss alternative points of view, but using all five theories opens our eyes and minds to aspects of development that we might otherwise ignore. A disadvantage of this perspective is that some individuals may not have the skills necessary to identify and select the best characteristics of each theory.

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VISUALIZING DEVELOPMENT

Breast-feeding Diversity

Breast-feeding is an interesting example of cultural variations in child development practices around the world. In some parts of the world, and in some cohorts in each country, mothers breastfeed for years—in other places and in other cultural groups, mothers see formula-feeding as safer and more modern. Rates of breast-feeding seem to vary by cohort and culture. Virtually every scientist and pediatrician is convinced that the benefits of breast milk outweigh any dangers, with numerous advantages evident years after infancy. However, the experiences of each cohort differ from earlier cohorts.

WHAT AN OBSERVER INFLUENCED BY EACH OF THE FIVE PERSPECTIVES MIGHT SAY ABOUT THESE STATISTICS

Psychoanalytic. The close mother–infant bond is crucial for the child’s psychological development. Nations with lower rates of breast-feeding are likely to have higher rates of anxiety and depression among adults.

Behaviorist. Breast-feeding becomes habitual and reinforcing to both mother and child. That is why, among mothers who are breast-feeding at 6 months, many continue—even when nutritionally it is no longer needed.

Cognitive. Whether or not a woman breast-feeds depends on what she believes. That is why rates of breast-feeding have increased in Western nations over the past few decades.

Sociocultural. Cultural variations are apparent. All infants need to be fed, but the wide differences from place to place show that how babies are fed depends more on culture than on other factors.

Evolutionary (a universal perspective). Evolutionary needs have always required breast-feeding, but women who wanted to be more “modern” moved away from it. As evolutionary factors have become better understood in the United States, breast-feeding is increasing.

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