BIOSOCIAL

Body Changes Children continue to grow from ages 2 to 6, but at a slower rate. Normally, the BMI (body mass index) is lower at about ages 5 and 6 than at any other time of life. Children often eat too much unhealthy food and refuse to eat certain other foods altogether. Parents do not realize that appetites are small.

Brain Development and Motor Skills The proliferation of neural pathways continues and myelination is ongoing. Parts of the brain (e.g., the corpus callosum, prefrontal cortex, amygdala, hippocampus, and hypothalamus) connect. This not only also leads to a decline in impulsivity and perseveration but also allows lateralization of the brain’s left and right hemispheres and better coordination of the left and right sides of the body, facilitating motor skill development.

Injuries and Maltreatment Far more children worldwide die of avoidable accidents than of diseases. All forms of child maltreatment—including abuse and neglect—require primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention. Neighborhood stability, parental education, income support, and fewer unwanted children reduce maltreatment. Parents are the most common abusers, but everyone in the community can help with prevention.

COGNITIVE

Thinking During Early Childhood Piaget stressed the young child’s egocentric, illogical perspective, which prevents the child from grasping concepts such as conservation. Vygotsky stressed the cultural context, noting that children learn from mentors—which include parents, teachers, peers—and from the social context. Children develop their own theories, including a theory of mind, as they realize that not everyone thinks as they do.

Language Learning Language develops rapidly. By age 6, the average child knows 10,000 words and demonstrates extensive grammatical knowledge. Young children can learn two (or more) languages equally well during these years if their social context is encouraging. Mistakes, in overregularization, in pronunciation, and in precise use of vocabulary are common.

Early-Childhood Schooling Young children are avid learners. Child-centered, teacher-directed, and intervention programs, such as Head Start, can all nurture learning; the outcome depends on the warmth and skill of teachers and on the specifics of the curriculum.

PSYCHOSOCIAL

Emotional Development Self-esteem is usually high during early childhood. Self-concept emerges in Erikson’s stage of initiative versus guilt, as does the ability to regulate emotions. Externalizing problems may be the result of too little emotional regulation; internalizing problems may result from too much control.

Play All young children play, and they play best with peers. Rough and tumble and dramatic play are particularly likely to foster emotional regulation, empathy, and cultural understanding.

Challenges for Caregivers The authoritative caregiving style—which is warm and encouraging, with good communication as well as high expectations—is most effective in promoting the child’s self-esteem, autonomy, and self-control. The authoritarian and permissive styles are less beneficial, although cultural variations are apparent. Children develop stereotypic concepts of sex (biological) and gender (cultural); current developmental theories give contradictory explanations. Morals develop in response to cultural norms and practices.