11.1 Biosocial Development

Focus on Education This emerging-adult couple, posing in front of the stadium in Beijing, China, has just started dating. Their primary focus at this age is on their education.

©ULANA SWITUCHA/AGE FOTOSTOCK

Biologically, the years from ages 18 to 25 are prime time for hard physical work and successful reproduction. However, the fact that young adults can carry rocks, plow fields, and reproduce more easily than older adults is no longer universally admired.

If a contemporary young couple had a baby every year, their neighbours would be more surprised than approving. In fact, large families have become so unusual that they are sometimes the focus of TV reality shows. Today, during emerging adulthood, societies, families, and young adults themselves expect more education, later marriage, and fewer children than was true as recently as 50 years ago (see At About This Time). More people are pursuing post-secondary education, and the median age for family commitment is at the end of emerging adulthood. It is also important to note that many people do not follow this normative path. Sometimes such expectations are thought to be exclusive to the middle class in advanced nations, but the trends are apparent everywhere.

Strong and Active Bodies

Peak Performance Because this is a soccer match, of course we see skilled feet and strong legs—but also notice the arms, torsos, and feats of balance. Deniz Naki (age 21) and Luis Gustavo (age 23) are German soccer team members and are in better shape than most emerging adults, but imagine these two a decade earlier (at age 11 and 13) or later (at age 31 and 33) and you will realize why, physiologically, one’s early 20s are considered the prime of life.

APN PHOTO/AXEL HEIMKEN

Health does not change significantly in early adulthood, except maybe to improve with advanced technology and research. Every human body system—including the digestive, respiratory, circulatory, and sexual-reproductive systems—functions optimally at the beginning of adulthood. In a recent Canadian national survey, Health Profile, 68.4 percent of young adults (age 20 to 34) reported that their physical health was either very good or excellent (Statistics Canada, 2013k).

Specifics confirm the health of emerging adults. Serious diseases are usually not yet apparent, and some childhood ailments are outgrown. For example, childhood asthma disappears as often as it continues. Although many emerging adults continue the poor health habits they had as adolescents, the trend is toward better diets and regular exercise, and that improves mental as well as physical health (Walsh, 2011).

However, this does not mean that serious health problems from childhood disappear or that new health concerns do not emerge. A comprehensive review of many studies finds that low birth weight, undernutrition in infancy, and rapid weight gain in early childhood tend to result in shorter height, reduced body functioning, and higher risk of disease in early adulthood (Victora et al., 2008). In a Canadian survey in which only 5.8 percent of young adults rated their health as fair or poor, 9.7 percent reported they had asthma, 2.5 percent said they had arthritis, 2.1 percent had high blood pressure, and 0.9 percent had diabetes. In addition, 7.7 percent had moderate or severe pain or discomfort, and 8.9 percent had pain or discomfort that prevented activities (Statistics Canada, 2013k).

Fortunately, severe health problems are usually kept in check during early adulthood, when the immune system is strong (Grubeck-Loebenstein, 2010). For instance, between 2005 and 2009, 346 330 Canadians died of cancer, but only 1400 (0.4 percent) were age 15 to 29 years (Canadian Cancer Society’s Advisory Committee on Cancer Statistics, 2013). Death from heart disease is equally rare for emerging adults.

For most emerging adults, teeth have no new cavities, heart rate is steady, the brain functions well, and lung capacity is sufficient. Many diagnostic tests, such as PSAs (for prostate cancer), mammograms (for breast cancer), and colonoscopies (for colon cancer) are not usually recommended until decades later, unless risk factors are present. Death from any disease is rare, although, as discussed later, death from accidents, suicide, and homicide increase, and psychosocial problems may occur.

Fertility, Then and Now

FIGURE 11.1 Fertility Rates Are Dropping In all three North American countries, fertility rates have fallen dramatically since the 1960s. What might be some reasons for the decreasing rate in Canada? What implications might this have for national policies on the economy and immigration?

Source: World Bank, 2014.

Dramatic fertility shifts have been observed around the world over the past 50 years. For example, average births per woman over this time period declined from 7 to 1.5 in Iran, 8 to 4 in Kenya, 6 to 2 in South America, and 5 to 1.5 in East Asia. For the world as a whole, the birth rate from 1960 to 2010 fell from 4.9 to 2.45 (United Nations, 2011). Similarly, Canada’s fertility rate in 2011 was 1.63, a significant decrease from 3.81 in 1960, and the lowest rate in North America (see Figure 11.1).

Years of Practice People of any age can begin ballet lessons or any other physical activity, but mastery requires a decade or more. Russian ballet dancers begin intensive practice in childhood, hoping for the fame achieved by Yulia Tikka, here at age 23 in her prime. Her solo career will soon end; superstars in almost every demanding athletic activity slow down by age 30.

EPA/MAURI RATILAINEN/NEWSCOM

The sexual-reproductive system is at its strongest during emerging adulthood. Moreover miscarriage is less common, and serious birth complications are unusual. Historically, most couples had their first child as teenagers. Many had a second and a third child before age 25. Today, 29 is the average age for a first birth in Canada (Employment and Social Development Canada, n.d.[a]), with first births occurring even later in some other countries.

Delaying PregnancyMany emerging adults who have sex know that they are not prepared for parenthood, mentally, emotionally, or financially, and use contraception to avoid pregnancy. Although no contraception is always successful, long-acting contraception (implant, IUD, Depo-Provera) almost never fails (about 1 failure in 400 women), whereas shorter-acting measures (pill, patch, or ring) fail for 1 in 20 women (Winner et al., 2012). Failure rates are higher in adolescents than in emerging adults.

Largely as a result of the use of contraception, the birth rate has fallen—a trend for all women under age 40, with a particularly strong drop for those ages 20 to 24 (Livingston, 2011). This does not mean that parenthood is not important to young adults and those in their late 20s. Even compared with 13 years ago, more people in this age range hope to become good parents, while fewer say that having a successful marriage is one of the most important things in their life (Wang & Taylor, 2011).

Sexually Transmitted InfectionsAs mentioned in Chapter 10, sexually transmitted infections are on the rise worldwide, with half of all new cases occurring in people younger than 26 (Gewirtzman et al., 2011). In Canada in 2008, the highest rates of all types of infections were found in those younger than age 30 (Public Health Agency of Canada, 2008). This trend is also seen in the United States, Australia, and the United Kingdom.

Young adults are the prime vectors (those who spread disease) for HIV/AIDS as well. The Public Health Agency of Canada reports that HIV is acquired primarily by men having sex with men (46.7 percent), by use of infected needles (16.9 percent), and through heterosexual contact with those from a non-prevalent HIV region (17.6 percent) or prevalent HIV region (14.9 percent).

Beginning in emerging adulthood, rates of HIV diagnosis/people living with HIV begin to increase. Between 1985 and 2012, about 26 percent of positive HIV tests in Canada were for males under the age of 29 years, and about 37 percent were for females of that same age group (PHAC, 2012a).

It is important to note that the majority of positive HIV test reports are for those over the age of 30. In addition, since 2010, the AIDS epidemic has been slowing, largely because young people are protecting themselves against HIV (World Health Organization [WHO] UNAIDS, 2011). Protection includes fewer sex partners, later sex, more condom use, provision of sterile needles to intravenous drug users, and voluntary circumcision among young adult men (WHO UNAIDS, 2011).

Taking Risks

Remember that each developmental period brings gains and losses, and any specific age-related characteristic can be a blessing or a burden. One example is risk taking, with emerging adults particularly likely (bravely or foolishly) to take risks. In addition to age, risk taking is affected by gender, genes, hormones, and culture. Young North American males who are genetically impulsive are often remarkably brave and foolhardy.

Benefits and LiabilitiesSocieties, as well as individuals, benefit from this characteristic of emerging adults. Enrolling in college or university, moving to a new city or country, getting married, having a baby—all are risky. So is starting a business, becoming a firefighter, entering an athletic contest, enlisting in the army, and rescuing a stranger. Without emerging adults, all those activities would occur less often.

Yet risk taking is often destructive. Although their bodies are strong and their reactions quick, emerging adults have more accidents that send them to emergency rooms than do people of any other age (except for falls in the elderly). Because of their good overall health, usually they are stitched, casted, medicated, stabilized, and discharged in short order.

The low rate of serious disease between ages 18 and 25 is counterbalanced by a high rate of severe injuries and violent deaths, with males at least twice as vulnerable as females. (Sometimes the ratio is as high as 5 : 1, depending on which nation and which type of violent death is analyzed.) For both sexes, age is always a factor in suicide, self-destructive behaviours, homicide, and accidents. More people are murdered during emerging adulthood than at any other period. Many specific types of accidental death are also more frequent during these years, including drug overdose, motor vehicle crashes, and drowning. Among the destructive risks more common in emerging adulthood are

• unprotected sex with a new partner
• driving fast without a seat belt
• abusing drugs
• addictive gambling.

People behave this way partly for the rush of adrenalin (Cosgrave, 2010). Ironically, warning emerging adults about the risks may lead to a backlash—some subsequently increase their risk taking in order to defy death and aging (Popham et al., 2011a).

Risky SportsMany young adults seek the rush of risk taking in recreational activities. They climb mountains, swim in oceans, run in pain, play past exhaustion, and so on. Skydiving, bungee-jumping, pond-swooping, parkour, potholing (in caves), waterfall kayaking, and many more activities have been invented to satisfy the joy of risk. Serious injury is not the goal, of course, but high risk adds to the challenge (Brymer, 2010).

Competitive extreme sports (such as freestyle motocross—riding a motorcycle off a ramp, catching “big air,” doing tricks while falling, and hoping to land upright) are thrilling for some emerging adults. They find golf, bowling, and so on too tame (Breivik, 2010). As one researcher concluded about dirt-bikers (off-road motorcyclists), particularly from ages 18 to 24 there may be a developmental lag between impulse control and cognitive evaluation of risk (Dwane, 2012). The thrill overwhelms reason.

This is clearer with an example. Travis Pastrana won the 2006 X Games MotoX Freestyle event at age 22 with a double backflip because, as he explained, “The two main things are that I’ve been healthy and able to train at my fullest, and a lot of guys have had major crashes this year” (Higgins, 2006, D7). Four years later, in 2010, he set a new record for leaping through big air in an automobile, driving over the ocean from a ramp on the California shore to a barge more than 76 metres out. He crashed into a barrier on the boat, emerging ecstatic and unhurt, to the thunderous cheers of thousands of other young adults (Roberts, 2010). In 2011, a broken foot and ankle made him temporarily halt extreme sports—but soon he was back risking his life to the acclaim of his cohort, winning races rife with flips and other hazards.

Travis Could Crash But he didn’t. The possibility of death is what makes thousands watch Travis Pastrana perform his risky stunts, as here in Sydney, Australia.

REUTERS/TIM WIMBORNE

Drug AbuseThe same impulse that is admired in extreme sports can lead to behaviours that are clearly destructive, not only for individuals but for the community. The most studied of these is drug abuse, which can involve dozens of substances—both legal and illegal (Maisto et al., 2011).

Risks During Post-Secondary Education Alcohol and drug use can be a risky part of the college or university experience for emerging adults. Alcohol use during Spring Break in Florida is common, as shown in this photo. Drinking large quantities in a short time can be dangerous.

JOE RAEDLE/GETTY IMAGES

By definition, drug abuse occurs whenever a person uses a drug that harms physical, cognitive, or psychosocial well-being. Occasional smoking can be abuse, as can alcohol bingeing or heavy drinking (5 or more drinks on one occasion). In 2011, a national survey found that 17.4 percent of Canadians aged 12 and over stated that they had engaged in binge drinking at least once a month for one year. Men generally reported higher rates than women, with the highest reports of heavy drinking coming between the ages of 18 to 34 (Statistics Canada, 2013d). Even one-time use can be abusive, if, for instance, it leads to driving while drunk, walking into traffic while hallucinating, being arrested for cocaine use, and so on.

More often, abusers are also addicts: They need the drug to feel okay, and they become chronic users. Drug addiction and abuse are more common during emerging adulthood than at any other age (Johnston et al., 2010). Part of the attraction of drugs for this age group is in their abuse, specifically in taking a drug to feel dizzy, out-of-body, or high. It adds to the thrill if authority figures disapprove. Buying, carrying, and using an illegal drug, knowing that arrest is possible, are all exciting. So is selling: Most street sellers of drugs are relatively young—they often quit, go to prison, or are killed before middle age. Illegal drug use peaks at about age 20 and declines sharply after that (see Figure 11.2).

FIGURE 11.2 Substance Abuse by Age As you can see, emerging adults are the biggest substance abusers, but illegal drug use drops much faster than cigarette use or binge drinking. This figure depicts drug use in one nation (the United States in 2008), but the same trends are universal.

Source: SAMHSA, 2009.

Surprisingly, drug abuse is more common among college and university students than among their contemporaries who are not in post-secondary education. Alcohol abuse is rampant in colleges and universities, with 25 percent of young men and 5 percent of young women reporting that they consumed 10 or more drinks in a row at least once in the previous two weeks (Johnston et al., 2009). Such excesses arise from the same drive as extreme sports or other risks—with the same potential consequence: death.