Understanding How and Why
1. The study of human development is a science that seeks to understand how people change or remain the same over time. As a science, it begins with questions and hypotheses and then gathers empirical data, drawing conclusions that are shared (usually published) with other scientists, who replicate the study to confirm, modify, or refute the conclusions.
2. Nature and nurture always interact. Each human characteristic is affected by both genes (nature) and environment (nurture) and by their interaction. Epigenetically, the environment affects genes.
The Life-
3. Development is multidirectional, multicontextual, and multicultural. That means that gains and losses are apparent throughout life, that an ecological approach that considers the immediate contexts (family, school) as well as broader contexts (historical conditions, economic status) is essential, and that each culture embraces values and assumptions about human life.
4. Culture, ethnicity, and race are social constructions, concepts created by society. Culture includes beliefs and patterns; ethnicity refers to ancestral heritage. The social construction of “race” has been misused, so some social scientists want to abandon it whereas others want to use it to combat racism.
5. Development also needs to be understood using the methods and viewpoints of many disciplines. For example, to understand the cause of psychological depression, at least a dozen factors from a dozen disciplines are helpful.
6. Development is plastic, which means that although inborn traits and childhood experiences affect later development, patterns and possibilities can change throughout life.
Theories of Development
7. Psychoanalytic theory, as originated by Freud, emphasizes that human actions and thoughts originate from unconscious impulses and childhood conflicts. Erikson went beyond Freud: He described eight stages of psychosocial development, each reflecting the age, culture, and context of the individual.
8. Learning theory focuses on how overt behaviours are influenced by the social environment. One learning theory, behaviourism, stresses that people of all ages develop according to the associations and reinforcements that accompany their actions. Another learning theory, social learning theory, acknowledges that humans are social beings whose behaviours are shaped by observing the behaviours of others.
9. Cognitive theory emphasizes that thought processes affect all human behaviours and assumptions. Piaget described how these change with age; information-
10. Systems theory focuses on the idea that a change in one part of a system—
11. Humanism stresses that all humans have basic needs that must be met for people to reach their full potential, becoming self-
12. Evolutionary theory traces the inborn impulses that arise from past millennia of human life, and that enable humans to survive and reproduce successfully. This perspective explains some irrational fears as well as some noble human traits.
Using the Scientific Method
13. Several specific research designs help scientists understand human development. Scientific observation, the experiment, and the survey each provide insights and discoveries that were not apparent before the research. Each also has liabilities, so before a scientific community will accept a conclusion several methods are typically used.
14. An additional challenge for developmentalists is to study change over time. Two traditional research designs are often used: cross-
Cautions and Challenges from Science
15. A correlation shows that two variables are related. However, it does not prove that one variable causes the other. The relationship of variables may be opposite to the one expected, or it may be the result of a third variable.
16. Quantitative research provides data that is numerical, and thus is often used to compare children in different contexts and cultures. By contrast, qualitative research captures the nuance of individual lives. Both are needed.
17. Ethical behaviour is crucial in all the sciences. Not only must participants be protected and data be kept confidential (primary concerns of Research Ethics Boards), but results must be fairly reported, honestly interpreted, and replicated. Scientists must be mindful of the implications of their research.
18. Appropriate application of scientific research depends partly on the training and integrity of the scientists. The most important ethical question is whether scientists are designing, conducting, analyzing, publishing, and applying the research that is most critically needed to help the entire human family develop well.
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