Chapter Introduction

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THE FIRST TWO YEARS:
Psychosocial Development

CHAPTER OUTLINE

Emotional Development

Early Emotions

Toddlers’ Emotions

Brain and Emotions

Growth of the Brain

Temperament

A VIEW FROM SCIENCE: Linking Temperament and Parenting—A Canadian Perspective

The Development of Social Bonds

Synchrony

Attachment

Insecure Attachment and Social Setting

Social Referencing

Fathers as Social Partners

Theories of Infant Psychosocial Development

Psychoanalytic Theory

Learning Theory

Cognitive Theory

OPPOSING PERSPECTIVES: Proximal and Distal Parenting

Systems Theory

Humanism

Evolutionary Theory

Non-parental Care

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WHAT WILL YOU KNOW?

  • How do smiles, tears, anger, and fear change from birth to age 2?
  • Does a baby’s temperament predict lifelong personality?
  • What are the signs of a healthy parent–infant relationship?
  • Do the six major theories and the hundreds of human cultures differ in their understanding of infant development and caregiving practices?

My 1-week-old grandson cried. Often. Again and again. Day and night. For a long time. He and his parents were living with me while they looked for an apartment. I was the dog-walker and dinner-cooker, not caregiver, so I didn’t mind the crying for myself. But I did mind for my sleep-deprived daughter.

“Give him a pacifier,” I told her.

“No, that causes ‘nipple confusion,’” she said.

“I never heard of that. What have you been reading? Give him a pacifier.”

My daughter knows that I value research and evidence, not hearsay or anecdote. She replied, “The American Academy of Pediatrics says no pacifiers for breastfed babies in the first month. Here it is on their website.”

That quieted me, but soon I developed another worry—that my son-in-law would resent fatherhood. He spent many hours, day and night, carrying my grandson while my daughter slept.

“It seems to me that you do most of the baby-comforting,” I told him.

“That’s because Elissa does most of the breastfeeding,” he answered with a smile.

I learned in those months. In the decades since my children were infants, pediatricians have new recommendations and fathers are more active partners.

—Kathleen Berger

COURTESY OF KATHLEEN BERGER

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THIS CHAPTER OPENS BY TRACING INFANTS’ EMOTIONS As their brains mature and their experiences accumulate, noting temperamental and cultural differences. This leads to an exploration of caregiver–infant interaction, particularly synchrony, attachment, and social referencing. For every aspect of caregiving, fathers as well as mothers are included.

Then we apply each of the six theories introduced in Chapter 1. After the theories are explained, we apply them to a controversial topic in infant psychosocial development: Who should provide daily care?

Many specifics vary depending on culture and cohort, but some universal psychosocial needs are apparent. With or without pacifiers or patient parents, most infants thrive, as long as their basic emotional needs are met.