gender schema: A child’s cognitive concept or general belief about male and female differences.

imaginary friends: Make-believe friends who exist only in a child’s imagination; increasingly common from ages 2 to 7, they combat loneliness and aid emotional regulation.

neglectful/uninvolved parenting: An approach to child rearing in which the parents seem indifferent toward their children, not knowing or caring about their children’s lives.

extrinsic motivation: A drive, or reason to pursue a goal, that arises from the wish to have external rewards, perhaps by earning money or praise.

empathy: The ability to understand the emotions and concerns of another person, especially when they differ from one’s own.

authoritarian parenting: An approach to child rearing that is characterized by high behavioral standards, strict punishment of misconduct, and little communication from child to parent.

superego: In psychoanalytic theory, the judgmental part of the personality that internalizes the moral standards of the parents.

rough-and-tumble play: Play that seems to be rough, as in play wrestling or chasing, but in which there is no intent to harm.

permissive parenting: An approach to child rearing that is characterized by high nurturance and communication but little discipline, guidance, or control.

initiative versus guilt: Erikson’s third psychosocial crisis, in which young children undertake new skills and activities and feel guilty when they do not succeed at them.

gender differences: Differences in male and female roles, behaviors, clothes and so on that arise from society, not biology.

sociodramatic play: Pretend play in which children act out various roles and themes in plots or roles that they create.

intrinsic motivation: A drive, or reason to pursue a goal, that comes from inside a person, such as the joy of reading a good book.

identification: In psychoanalytic theory, considering the behaviors, appearance and and attitudes of someone else to be one’s own.

Oedipus complex: The unconscious desire of young boys to replace their fathers and win their mothers’ exclusive love.

authoritative parenting: An approach to child rearing in which the parents set limits and enforce rules but are flexible and listen to their children.

phallic stage: Freud’s third stage of development, when the penis becomes the focus of concern and pleasure.

emotional regulation: The ability to control when and how emotions are expressed.

effortful control: The ability to regulate one’s emotions and actions through effort, not simply through natural inclination.

sex differences: Biological differences between males and females, in organs, hormones, and body shape.

foster care: When a person (usually a child), is cared for by someone other than the parents.

antipathy: Feelings of dislike or even hatred for another person.

kinship care: A form of foster care in which a relative, usually a grandmother, becomes the approved caregiver.

reactive aggression: An impulsive retaliation for another person’s intentional or accidental hurtful action.

reported maltreatment: Harm or endangerment about which someone has notified the authorities.

prosocial behavior: Actions that are helpful and kind but that are of no obvious benefit to the person doing them.

primary prevention: Actions that change overall background conditions to prevent some unwanted event or circumstance, such as injury, disease, or abuse.

corporal punishment: Discipline techniques that hurt the body (corpus) of someone, from spanking to serious harm, including death.

psychological control: A disciplinary technique that involves threatening to withdraw love and support, using a child’s feelings of guilt and gratitude to the parents.

antisocial behavior: Actions that are deliberately hurtful or destructive to another person.

bullying aggression: Unprovoked, repeated physical or verbal attack, especially on victims who are unlikely to defend themselves.

time-out: A disciplinary technique in which a person is separated from other people and activities for a specified time.

tertiary prevention: Actions, such as immediate and effective medical treatment, after an adverse event (such as illness or injury).

instrumental aggression: Hurtful behavior that is intended to get something that another person has.

relational aggression: Nonphysical acts, such as insults or social rejection, aimed at harming the social connection between the victim and other people.

secondary prevention: Actions that avert harm in a high-risk situation, such as using seat belts in cars.

harm reduction: Reducing the potential negative consequences of behavior, such as safety surfaces replacing cement at a playground.

substantiated maltreatment: Harm or endangerment that has been reported, investigated, and verified.

posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD): An anxiety disorder that develops as a delayed reaction to having experienced or witnessed a shocking or frightening event. Its symptoms may include flashbacks, hypervigilance, anger, nightmares, and sudden terror.

child maltreatment: Intentional harm to or avoidable endangerment of anyone under 18 years of age.