SUMMARY

1. Children develop their self-concept during middle childhood, basing it on a more realistic assessment of their competence than they had in earlier years.

2. Erikson emphasized industry, when children busily strive to master various tasks. If they are unable to do so, they feel inferior. Freud described a latency period, when psychosexual needs are quiet.

3. Self-respect is always helpful, but high self-esteem may reduce effortful control and is not valued in every culture. Low self-esteem is also harmful.

4. Both daily hassles and major stresses take a toll on children, with accumulated stresses more likely to impair development than any single event on its own. Resilience is aided by the child’s interpretation of the situation and the availability of supportive adults, peers, and institutions.

5. Families influence children in many ways, as do genes and peers. Although most siblings share a childhood home and parents, each sibling experiences different (nonshared) circumstances within the family.

6. The five functions of a supportive family are: to satisfy children’s physical needs; to encourage learning; to nurture friendships; to foster self-respect; and to provide a safe, stable, and harmonious home.

7. The most common family structure worldwide is the nuclear family, usually with other relatives nearby. Other two-parent families include adoptive, same-sex, grandparent, and stepfamilies, each of which sometimes functions well for children, and sometimes not.

8. On average, children have fewer emotional problems and learn more in school if they live with two parents rather than one, especially if the parents are both caregivers, forming an alliance.

9. Single-parent families are more likely to change where they live and who belongs to the family. That may disrupt the children. Further, such families often have less income and more stress. Nonetheless, some single parents form families that function well for children.

10. Income affects family function. Children from low-SES families may suffer if poverty increases stress and hinders effective parenting. No matter what the family SES, instability and conflict are harmful.

11. Peers teach crucial social skills during middle childhood. Close friends are wanted and needed. Popular children may be cooperative and easy to get along with, or may be competitive and aggressive.

12. Rejected children may be neglected, aggressive, or withdrawn. Aggressive and withdrawn children have difficulty understanding the normal social interaction of childhood.

13. Bullying of all sorts—physical, verbal, relational, and cyber—is common, with long-term consequences for both bullies and victims. A multifaceted, long-term, whole-school approach, with parents, teachers, and bystanders working together, seems the best way to halt bullying.

14. In middle childhood, children seek to differentiate right from wrong. Peer values, cultural standards, and family practices are all part of each child’s morality.

15. Children advance in moral thinking as they mature. Kohlberg described three levels of moral reasoning, each related to cognitive maturity. His description has been criticized for ignoring cultural and gender differences and for stressing rationality at the expense of emotions.

16. When values conflict, children often choose loyalty to peers over adult standards of behavior. As children grow older, especially when they discuss moral issues, they develop more thoughtful answers to moral questions, considering intentions as well as consequences.