What Have You Learned?

1. Question 4.1

   How might protective optimism lead to a child’s acquisition of new skills and competencies?

   Young children’s self-concepts are unrealistic. They believe that they are strong, smart, and good-looking—and thus that any goal is achievable. Whatever they are is thought to be good. This protective optimism encourages children to try unfamiliar activities, make friends, begin school, and so on.

2. Question 4.2

   What is an example of an intrinsic motivation and an extrinsic motivation for reading a book?

   An intrinsic motivation for reading a book would be finding enjoyment from reading. An extrinsic motivation for reading a book would be getting paid by one’s parents for reading books during summer break.

3. Question 4.3

   What is the connection between psychopathology and emotional regulation?

   Impaired emotional regulation universally signals psychopathology, an illness or disorder of the mind. Without adequate regulation, emotions can be overwhelming. Intense reactions can occur in opposite ways, as you might expect from the activate/inhibit nature of neurons. Some people have externalizing problems: Their powerful feelings burst out uncontrollably. Without emotional regulation, an angry child might flail at another person or lie down screaming and kicking. Other people have internalizing problems: They are fearful and withdrawn, turning distress inward. Internalized emotions may exhibit themselves as headaches or stomachaches.

4. Question 4.4

   In what ways might playing with peers teach emotional regulation, empathy, and cultural understanding?

   Playing with peers requires negotiation about rules of the game, cooperation toward a shared goal, and sensitivity to the needs of the peer. Peers expose children to cultural differences during play dates at each other’s homes. No longer can a child be self-absorbed when playing with a peer, who can choose not to play with the child anymore. Peer interactions provide an opportunity to develop positive social skills.

5. Question 4.5

   How does culture affect the development of social play?

   While progress in social play is largely age-related, it is also affected by cultural values. Asian parents, with their emphasis on social harmony, teach children as young as 3 years old to take turns, share, and cooperate. North American parents, with their emphasis on individuality, have children who may still engage in parallel play at 3.

6. Question 4.6

   Why might children’s muscle strength and control develop better when playing with peers than when playing alone?

   Peers provide an audience, role models, and sometimes competition. For instance, running skills develop best when children chase or race each other, not when a child runs alone.

7. Question 4.7

   What do children learn from rough-and-tumble play?

   Many scientists think that rough-and-tumble play helps the prefrontal cortex to develop, along with helping children learn to regulate emotions, practice social skills, and strengthen their bodies. Some believe that play in childhood, especially rough-and-tumble between a boy and his father, may prevent antisocial behavior later on.

8. Question 4.8

   What do children learn from sociodramatic play?

   Through sociodramatic play, children learn to explore and rehearse social roles and to explain their ideas and convince playmates to agree. They also practice emotional regulation by pretending to be afraid, angry, brave, etc. and develop their self-concepts in a nonthreatening context.

9. Question 4.9

   Which parenting style seems to promote the happiest, most successful children?

   Authoritative parents produce the happiest, most successful children. These parents set limits, but they are flexible. They encourage maturity, but they usually listen and give consequences if the child falls short. They consider themselves guides, not authorities and not friends.

10. Question 4.10

    Why do American childhood professionals advise limitations on electronic media for young children?

    The problem with media is that violent media teach aggression and even nonviolent media take time from constructive interaction and creative play. Social interaction among family members is also reduced when a TV is on, whether or not anyone is watching.

11. Question 4.11

    What does psychoanalytic theory say about the origins of sex differences and gender roles?

    According to psychoanalytic theory, at the phallic stage children cope with guilt and fear through identification; that is, they try to become like the same-sex parent. Consequently, young boys copy their fathers’ mannerisms, opinions, actions, and girls copy their mothers’. Both boys and girls exaggerate the male or female role.

12. Question 4.12

    What do behaviorists say about the origins of sex differences and gender roles?

    Behaviorists believe that all roles are learned through ongoing reinforcement, punishment, and social learning (or modeling). They suggest that authority figures reward gender-appropriate behavior and that children model themselves after the adults who care for them.

13. Question 4.13

    How does evolutionary theory explain why children follow gender norms?

    Evolutionary theory holds that sexual attraction is crucial for humankind’s survival, as it underlies the desire to reproduce. For this reason, males and females try to look attractive to the other sex by walking, talking, and laughing in gendered ways. If girls see their mothers wearing make-up and high heels, they want to do likewise. According to evolutionary theory, the species’ need to reproduce is part of everyone’s genetic heritage, so young boys and girls practice becoming attractive to the other sex. This behavior ensures that they will be ready after puberty to find each other and that a new generation will be born, as evolution requires.

14. Question 4.14

    What did Piaget believe about the moral development of children?

    Piaget thought that moral development began when children learned games with rules, which he connected with concrete operational thought at about age 7.

15. Question 4.15

    How might evolutionary theory explain moral development?

    Morality, if defined as behavior that helps others without immediate reward to oneself, may be in our DNA. According to evolutionary theory, humans protect, cooperate, and even sacrifice for one another precisely because our bodies are defenseless against the elements and vulnerable against possible predators. Thus people have long needed to rely on coordination and cooperation with others in order to survive, and from that need springs a moral sense. Hormones, specifically oxytocin, that are produced by the body may naturally push people toward trusting and loving each other.

16. Question 4.16

    What is the nature perspective on how people develop morals? What is the nurture perspective?

    The nature perspective suggests that morality is genetic, an outgrowth of natural bonding, attachment, and cognitive maturation. The nurture perspective contends that culture is crucial to the development of morality.

17. Question 4.17

    How might children develop empathy and antipathy as they play with one another?

    With increasing social experiences and decreasing egocentrism, children develop empathy, which is an understanding of other people’s feelings and concerns. Some children limit empathy by avoiding contact with the person in need. They may also develop antipathy, which is dislike or even hatred for another.

18. Question 4.18

    What is the connection between empathy and prosocial behavior?

    Scientists studying young humans and other primates report spontaneous efforts to assist others who are hurt, crying, or in need of help: That is evidence of empathy, which leads to prosocial behavior. Prosocial behaviors are those that offer helpfulness and kindness without any obvious benefit to oneself. Prosocial behavior seems to result more from empathy than from intellect or theory of mind.

19. Question 4.19

    What are the four kinds of aggression?

    All of the four types of aggression are seen in early childhood. Instrumental aggression is common among 2-year-old children, who often want something they do not have and simply try to take it. Reactive aggression is common among young children; almost every child reacts with aggression when attacked. Relational aggression (usually verbal) destroys another child's self-esteem and disrupts the victim's social networks, becoming more hurtful as children mature. Bullying aggression, done to dominate someone else, is not rare among young children.

20. Question 4.20

    How does moral development relate to discipline?

    Ideally, adults use discipline to guide children toward internalized standards of morality.

21. Question 4.21

    Why have many nations made corporal punishment illegal?

    In several European nations, corporal punishment is illegal. Although some adults believe that physical punishment will teach a lesson of obedience, the lesson that children may learn is that “might makes right.” When they become bigger and stronger, they may use corporal punishment on others. Parents who hit were usually hit themselves as children.

22. Question 4.22

    How might a parent use timeout as an effective form of discipline?

    During time-out, an adult requires a misbehaving child to sit quietly, without toys or playmates, for a short time. This is done instead of yelling at or spanking the child. To be effective, a time-out must be brief; one minute for each year of the child's age is a common suggestion.

23. Question 4.23

    What are the benefits of induction as a form of discipline? What are its challenges?

    Induction, in which parents talk extensively to the offender, helps the child to internalize parental standards. However, this strategy is time-consuming, and may not be effective for children who haven’t developed a theory of mind yet.