What Have You Learned?

1. Question 11.1

   What physical abilities emerge from age 6 to age 11?

   Motor skills become refined and hand-eye coordination improves, making sports, self-care, and other physical activities possible and easy for this age group.

2. Question 11.2

   How do childhood health habits affect adult health?

   Failure to develop good health habits in childhood may result in an adult who does not take the steps necessary to protect his or her own health.

3. Question 11.3

   What are the main advantages and disadvantages of physical play during middle childhood?

   The benefits include better overall health, less obesity, appreciation of cooperation and fair play, improved problem-solving abilities, and respect for teammates and opponents of many ethnicities and nationalities. Hazards include loss of self-esteem if performance is poor, possible injuries, reinforcement of prejudices, and increased stress.

4. Question 11.4

   How do children benefit from physical education in school?

   For children who do not have the opportunity to play in the neighborhood, physical education can be a good substitute. Recess gives children a chance to practice social skills with other children. Exercise can actually improve academic performance by improving blood flow to the brain, boosting neurotransmitters, and expending excess energy so children can cognitively focus.

5. Question 11.5

   What are the national and cohort differences in childhood obesity?

   Childhood obesity is increasing worldwide, and it has more than doubled since 1980 in all three nations of North America. Peru, Portugal, Spain, and Greece reported the highest rates of childhood obesity, with more than 30% of their 5- to 17-year-olds considered overweight in 2012. In the United States, Canada, and Mexico in 2012, approximately 25% to 30% of that age group was overweight, and similar rates were seen in the UK, Italy, Egypt, and Chile. The rates were slightly lower (20% to 25%) in Australia, Brazil, Iceland, Finland, Germany, and Hungary. In South Africa, Argentina, Venezuela, France, Poland, Turkey, Pakistan, Thailand, South Korea, and Japan, the rates are between 15% and 20%. Greenland, Sweden, Estonia, and Iraq have rates of 10% to 15%, and Russia and China have less than 10%.

6. Question 11.6

   Why does a thin 6-year-old have no need to fatten up?

   Children grow at their own pace, and their weight and metabolism are governed by some 200 genes. A thin 6-year-old may well turn into a 12-year-old of normal weight. The lowest rates of obesity are among 2- to 5-year-olds, and obesity increases as children grow older. Children do not need to try to speed up that process.

7. Question 11.7

   What roles do nature and nurture play in childhood asthma?

   A few alleles have been identified as contributing factors to childhood asthma, but none acts in isolation. Some make asthma difficult to control, while others cause milder, more controllable asthma. The hygiene hypothesis suggests that children who develop asthma are raised in environments that are too clean. There is also the contrasting idea that pollution, allergens, pets, and other things in the environment add to the possibility that asthma will develop.

8. Question 11.8

   What would be primary prevention for childhood obesity?

   Primary prevention requires changes at all levels, from the family through society. It would involve changes to school menus as well as changes in eating habits and exercise for all families. Communities would need to install public places for exercise and free play, sidewalks, and bike trails.

9. Question 11.9

   Why does good tertiary prevention for childhood asthma not reach every child who needs it?

   Tertiary prevention includes the prompt use of injections and inhalers. These are expensive, and not all children have good access to health care.

10. Question 11.10

    Why does quicker reaction time improve the ability to learn?

    With quicker reaction time, children can read and write faster, retrieve information more quickly, and make decisions rapidly. This allows for more information to be processed, leading to better understanding.

11. Question 11.11

    How does selective attention make it easier for a child to sit in a classroom?

    Selective attention allows children to focus on one thing while “tuning out” all competing stimuli.

12. Question 11.12

    When would a teacher give an aptitude test instead of an achievement test?

    Teachers might give an aptitude test to see which students have the potential to do well in a specific course of study, as opposed to an achievement test, which measures what the student has already learned.

13. Question 11.13

    If the theory of multiple intelligences is correct, should IQ tests be discarded? Why or why not?

    No, IQ tests should not be discarded because they provide a standardized measure of general intelligence.

14. Question 11.14

    Which intellectual abilities are more valued than others? Give examples.

    Logical, language, and mathematical abilities are valued over music or artistic ability. Society places a greater emphasis on academics than the creative arts.

15. Question 11.15

    Should brain scans replace traditional intelligence tests? Why or why not?

    No, brain scans should not replace traditional tests because the interpretation of brain scans is not straightforward. Since many areas of a young child’s brain are activated simultaneously and then, with practice, automatization reduces the need for brain activity, the smartest children might have less active brains. Similarly, some research finds that a thick cortex correlates with higher ability but also that thickness develops more slowly in gifted children. Brain scan results do not correlate well with written IQ tests, so it appears that the two types of assessments are measuring different things.

16. Question 11.16

    How does normal childhood behavior differ between the United States and Asia?

    The environment dictates through social norms what is considered acceptable behavior. Children in the United States are encouraged to be independent individuals and excel as such. Pride is encouraged. Children in collectivist cultures like Japan are encouraged to be more concerned with the benefit their work has to the entire group/class over themselves as individuals. Modesty is encouraged and pride is discouraged.

17. Question 11.17

    What is the difference between multifinality and equifinality?

    Multifinality means that one cause can have many final manifestations. Exposure to stress hormones in infancy might lead to hypervigilance or unusual calmness by kindergarten. It is hard to predict how a factor will affect an individual’s outcomes. Equifinality means that one symptom can have many causes. A child who does not speak might be autistic or hard of hearing, might not speak the language well, or might be pathologically shy. It is important to eliminate the competing explanations when making a diagnosis.

18. Question 11.18

    Why is medication recommended for children with ADHD?

    Medication is used to help ADHD children control their emotions and behavior. It makes it easier for them to attend to what is going on in the classroom so they can succeed academically. It also makes them less impulsive, leading to better social relationships.

19. Question 11.19

    Why might parents ask a doctor to prescribe Ritalin for their child?

    If their child has a diagnosis of ADHD, they may request this prescription to quiet their child and allow the child to focus, especially at school.

20. Question 11.20

    What are dyslexia and dyscalculia?

    Dyslexia and dyscalculia are both learning disabilities. Dyslexia is unusual difficulty with reading, whereas dyscalculia is unusual difficulty with math.

21. Question 11.21

    When might an adult have a learning disability that has never been diagnosed?

    Because there is no single test for diagnosing a learning disability, and because most learning disabilities are not debilitating, many people with learning disabilities reach adulthood unaware that they have a disability. Instead, they spent their school years feeling inadequate, ashamed, and stupid. They may not have achieved their fullest academic potential, unless they developed their own coping strategies.

22. Question 11.22

    If an adult with autism spectrum disorder is high-functioning, what kind of profession and what sort of family life would you expect him or her to have?

    We can expect talent in a specialized area, such as drawing or geometry, or in animal care. Social interaction will be impaired, making romantic love unlikely.

23. Question 11.23

    What are the three primary signs of autism spectrum disorder?

    There are two main signs of autism spectrum disorders: 1) problems in social interaction and the social use of language and 2) restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, and activities.