Chapter 12 What Have You Learned?

1. Question 12.1

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   Children this age can apply logic to concrete (tangible) things. They cannot yet deal with abstractions or hypothetical situations.

2. Question 12.2

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   Ground transportation could be classified as vehicles, mass transit, trains, or bicycles. Plants could be classified as edible and non-edible, or flowering and non-flowering.

3. Question 12.3

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   Piaget contended that cognitive advances occur naturally, as a result of maturation and self-exploration. Vygotsky believed that cognitive advances rely on scaffolding by peers and mentors and guided participation in the zone of proximal development.

4. Question 12.4

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   Education occurs everywhere, not just in classrooms. Children’s understanding develops from mentoring relationships with peers, older children, and adults (including parents and teachers).

5. Question 12.5

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   Piaget described universal changes; Vygotsky noted cultural impact. The basic assumption of the information processing approach is that, like computers, people can access large amounts of information. They seek specific units of information, analyze, and express their conclusions.

6. Question 12.6

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   Number understanding accrues gradually, with new and better strategies for calculation tried, ignored, half-used, abandoned, and finally adopted. Siegler compared the acquisition of knowledge to waves on a beach when the tide is rising. There is substantial ebb and flow, although eventually a new level is reached.

7. Question 12.7

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   Working memory—the processing of current, conscious material—improves markedly in childhood. By the end of childhood, long-term memory is extensive.

8. Question 12.8

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   Metacognition allows students to assess cognitive tasks and determine the best strategies for accomplishing them. Control processes like metacognition help with selective attention and emotion regulation.

9. Question 12.9

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   Between these ages children begin to understand and master pragmatics, which allows them to use their language in more ways and to understand and comprehend subtleties. They also become adept at switching between formal and informal speech based on their audience.

10. Question 12.10

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    A child has to have a good grasp of pragmatics before he or she can appreciate metaphors or jokes that make a play on words.

11. Question 12.11

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    Prefixes and suffixes allow a child to expand vocabulary. Once a basic understanding of the meaning of the prefix or suffix is in place, multiple words can be decoded and comprehended.

12. Question 12.12

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    The informal code used with friends often includes curse words, slang, gestures, and intentionally incorrect grammar. Peers approve of such violations, whereas adults wish to teach children the formal code of standard speech based on grammatical rules.

13. Question 12.13

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    In order to learn grammar and advanced vocabulary, a child has to be around people who use it well. In homes where standard English is not the language used, what children hear is different than what they hear and learn at school. Children from low-SES families may not be exposed to a rich language or extensive vocabularies. Their parents rarely read to them, which prevents them from learning “book language.” Thus, they tend to construct sentences with fewer words.

14. Question 12.14

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    Low-SES children are not exposed to complex sentences and, therefore, do not create them. They have fewer vocabulary words at their disposal, know less grammar, and compose shorter sentences. Low-SES parents do not often read aloud to their children. Thus, the children may struggle to learn concepts of print.

15. Question 12.15

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    Worldwide, children are given new responsibility and instruction in middle childhood because that is when the human body and brain are ready.

16. Question 12.16

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    The stated curriculum comes from the textbook. The hidden curriculum is what happens during the transmission of knowledge and may be a largely unconscious process. The hidden curriculum contains implicit values and assumptions evident in course selection, schedules, tracking, teacher characteristics, discipline, teaching methods, sports competition, student government, and the extracurricular activities offered.

17. Question 12.17

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    Children for whom English is a second language are taught in one of three ways. They may learn by immersion, in which all instruction is given in the “new” language. This is the traditional U.S. method for children who do not already speak English. Children also may be taught in their first language until the second language can be taught as a “foreign” tongue. This strategy is rare in the United States. A third option is to have students learn in a bilingual classroom where instruction is given in the native language as well as the “new” language.

18. Question 12.18

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    The Trends in Math and Science Study (TIMSS) is an international assessment of the math and science skills of fourth- and eighth-graders. The TIMSS is an actual skill assessment. Although its results are useful, different countries’ scores are not always comparable because sample selection, test administration, and content validity are hard to standardize. The Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) is a planned five-year longitudinal study of trends for fourth-grade readers.

19. Question 12.19

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    The goal was a good, solid education for all children. What happened was the creation of benchmark tests, teaching to the test, and funding tied to test scores. In the end, high-achieving children were ignored and monies that were earmarked for gifted education have gone to programs for lower-functioning students. Average students are pushed and can become frustrated. Subjects like the arts and physical education have also been cut from some programs to make time for more instruction in math and science.

20. Question 12.20

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    The Common Core standards were created to establish rigorous standards and appropriate assessments to meet the No Child Left Behind Act guidelines. These standards are very specific and precise; students either meet them or not.

21. Question 12.21

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    Charter schools are public schools with additional funding from private sources. They control student admission and expulsion and often have some exemptions from state regulations. Private schools are funded by tuition from families as well as private sources and can be religious or secular in nature. Home schooling is when parents educate their own children at home.