What Have You Learned?

1. Question 13.1

   How do Erikson’s stages for preschool and school-age children differ?

   School-age children become consumed by a conflict between industry and inferiority, whereas preschool children are consumed by a conflict between initiative and guilt. School-age students enjoy practicing skills and collecting and organizing things. These children are intrinsically motivated to achieve, especially in school, and compare themselves to their peers. This leads to a reduction in self-esteem; they no longer have the “protective optimism” of the preschool years. School-age children are more sensitive to criticism than preschool children are, and it can lead to a feeling of inferiority.

2. Question 13.2

   Why is social comparison particularly powerful during middle childhood?

   In preadolescence, the peer group becomes especially powerful because children compare themselves to others in order to form a realistic self-concept incorporating comparison to peers and judgments from the overall society.

3. Question 13.3

   Why do cultures differ in how they value pride or modesty?

   The answer to this question has to do with how the culture views the individual. For example, students in the Unites States are taught to value independence, cultivate pride, and be their own personal “best.” Children in collectivist cultures, like Japan, are taught to value the good of the group over the independence of the individual and to cultivate modesty.

4. Question 13.4

   Why and when might minor stresses be more harmful than major stresses?

   When “daily hassles” accumulate, they can become more devastating than an isolated major stress. Almost every child can withstand a single, major event, but repeated stresses make resilience difficult.

5. Question 13.5

   How might a child’s interpretation of events help him or her cope with repeated stress?

   When a child doesn’t take things personally or doesn’t view negative situations as permanent, it is much more likely that the child will be resilient.

6. Question 13.6

   How is it that siblings raised together do not share the exact same environment?

   The age of each child at the time of significant events, such as parental divorce, can cause different effects on each child. Each child has a different relationship with each parent, so that even though the children are raised in the same household with the same parents, the children’s experiences may vary.

7. Question 13.7

   What is the difference between family structure and family function?

   Family structure refers to the legal and genetic connections among people living in the same household, e.g., single-parent families, step-families, or three-generational families. Family function refers to how a family cares for its members; some families function well, whereas others are dysfunctional.

8. Question 13.8

   Why is a harmonious, stable home particularly important during middle childhood?

   Middle childhood is a time when children really need continuity, not change; peace, not conflict. Routine is important to children’s sense of security, so disruptions in home life are especially challenging for this age group.

9. Question 13.9

   Describe the characteristics of four different family structures.

   The family structures discussed in the text include:Nuclear: Two parents and their children.Single-parent: One parent and his or her children.Extended family: Nuclear or single-parent family plus other relatives, such as grandparents (three or more generations living in one home).Polygamous: One husband with two or more wives and their children.

10. Question 13.10

    What are the advantages for children in a nuclear family structure?

    Nuclear families tend to function best, at least in part because the people who marry tend to be better educated and to stay married. Having married parents benefits children by increasing the likelihood of parental involvement and decreasing the likelihood of neglect and abuse. Household income for nuclear families is also higher than for single-parent families.

11. Question 13.11

    List three reasons why the single-parent structure might function less well than other family structures.

    1) Lower income; 2) less stability; and 3) less parental availability to meet children’s needs.

12. Question 13.12

    In what ways are family structure and family function affected by culture?

    Two-parent families seem to function best worldwide, but in some European cultures, non-married parents provide families as stable as married couples in the United States. Single parenthood is common among African Americans, and the community routinely supports single parents. Asian American families function best with nuclear families, and Hispanic American families function well with nuclear or extended families.

13. Question 13.13

    Using the family-stress model, explain how low family income might affect family function.

    The family-stress model says that the crucial question for any risk factor is whether it increases stress. If poverty increases stress, and the adults’ reactions are negative (tense, hostile), then family function may suffer.

14. Question 13.14

    How does what children wear reflect the culture of children?

    The particular habits, styles, and values of a specific cohort affect the set of rules and rituals that characterize children as distinct from adults.

15. Question 13.15

    In what ways are friendships at the end of middle childhood different from those at the beginning of middle childhood?

    Friendships become more intense and intimate as social cognition and effortful control advance throughout childhood. Six-year-olds may be friends with anyone of the same sex and age who is willing to play with them cooperatively. By the end of the middle childhood, friends demand more of one another, including loyalty. Older children tend to choose best friends who share their interests, backgrounds, and values.

16. Question 13.16

    How is a child’s popularity affected by culture and cohort?

    Culture determines which qualities are desirable to other children; for example, shy children are popular in Shanghai but unpopular in North America. Cohort matters, too; that shy child in 1990 Shanghai who was popular would not be as popular in 2005 Shanghai, as Chinese culture has changed over time and come to value assertiveness more.

17. Question 13.17

    What are the similarities and differences between boy bullies and girl bullies?

    Boy bullies are usually physically bigger than their victims, and they rely on physical aggression toward smaller, weaker boys. Girl bullies tend to rely on verbal or relational aggression toward shyer, more soft-spoken girls. Both boy and girl bullies are similar in that they tend to torment children of the same gender as themselves.

18. Question 13.18

    How might bullying be reduced?

    Teaching empathy through cooperative learning, encouraging friendship and school pride, and implementing a “whole school” approach seem to be most effective. Telling peers what to do if they witness bullying and to be empathetic to the victim rather than reinforce (approve of) the bully’s behavior also helps.

19. Question 13.19

    Using Kohlberg’s levels of moral reasoning, explain how cognition advances morality.

    When children are preoperational and egocentric, their moral reasoning tends to be preconventional—directed toward avoiding punishment or gaining reward. When children are at the concrete operational stage, their moral reasoning tends to be conventional—it relates to specific practices such as societal rules and whatever peers approve of doing. When people reach the formal operational stage, their moral reasoning might move into the postconventional level, which is morality based on logic and abstract principles such as justice and fairness.

20. Question 13.20

    What are the main criticisms of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development?

    Kohlberg has been criticized for ignoring cultural and gender differences—not considering, for example, how females and some whole societies value social harmony over abstract justice.

21. Question 13.21

    What three values are common among school-age children?

    1) Protect your friends; 2) don’t tell adults what’s happening; and 3) don’t be too different from your peers.