What Have You Learned?

Understanding How and Why

1. Question 1.1

   What are the five steps of the scientific method?

   1) Pose a question; 2) Develop a hypothesis; 3) Test the hypothesis (usually by doing research); 4) Draw conclusions; and 5) Report the results.

2. Question 1.2

   What basic question is at the heart of the nature–nurture controversy?

   The basic question is: How much of any characteristic, behavior, or emotion is the result of genes, and how much is the result of experience?

The Life-Span Perspective

3. Question 1.3

   What are the concepts of discontinuity and of continuity?

   Discontinuity is drastic change, such as a caterpillar becoming a butterfly; continuity is gradual change, such as a redwood growing taller over hundreds of years.

4. Question 1.4

   Why is development said to be multicontextual?

   Development takes place within many contexts, including physical surroundings (climate, noise, population density, etc.) and family configurations (married couple, single parent, cohabiting couple, extended family, etc.).

5. Question 1.5

   Which components of the exosystem affect your life today?

   I am attending college, which is an educational institutional. I am working part time, which is an employment situation. I use a cellphone, which relies upon the communications systems. Other examples include medical systems and churches/temples/mosques.

6. Question 1.6

   What causes cohort differences between you and your parents?

   The most major differences are caused by the interaction of chronological age with the values, events, technologies, and culture of each era.

7. Question 1.7

   What is a social construction and what is an example of one?

   Ideas such as “race” or “ethnicity” or “adolescence” are all social constructions. They are concepts created by the ideas and values of a culture.

8. Question 1.8

   Define guided participation as described by Vygotsky.

   Guided participation is a universal process used by mentors to teach cultural knowledge, skills, and habits. It can occur in school or informally.

9. Question 1.9

   What is the difference between race and ethnicity?

   The term “race” has been used to categorize people on the basis of physical differences, particularly outward appearance. Ethnicity is a different social construction, affected by the social context rather than a direct outcome of biology.

10. Question 1.10

    How do both specialization and multidisciplinary research add to our understanding of a topic?

    Specialization provides a deeper understanding of particular areas or ages of development; however, human development requires insights and information from many scientists. Our understanding of every topic benefits from multidisciplinary research.

11. Question 1.11

    What is the difference between “genetic” and “epigenetic”?

    “Genetic” refers to the influence of genes. “Epigenetic” refers to the environmental factors that surround the genes and affect which genes get expressed (activated).

12. Question 1.12

    In what two ways is human development plastic?

    The term “plasticity” denotes two complementary aspects of development: Human traits can be molded (as plastic can be), and yet people maintain a certain durability of identity (as plastic does).

13. Question 1.13

    Why is human development described as dynamic?

    Human development is an ongoing, ever-changing interaction between the body and mind and between the individual and every aspect of the environment.

14. Question 1.14

    What is the concept of “differential sensitivity”?

    Differential sensitivity refers to the fact that some people are more vulnerable than others to certain experiences, usually for genetic reasons. For example, someone may have inherited a trait for addiction. That person may be more apt to use cigarettes, alcohol, or drugs due to environmental influences (such as stress). Someone without that gene might not respond to the environmental influence in the same way.

Using the Scientific Method

15. Question 1.15

    Explain the following statement: “Observation provides issues to explore, not proof.”

    Observation is crucial in developing hypotheses, but an experiment is needed to determine cause and effect relationships.

16. Question 1.16

    Why do experimenters use a control (or comparison) group as well as an experimental group?

    The purpose of an experiment is to find out whether an independent variable affects the dependent variable; therefore, one needs to compare the impact of the independent variable on a group that receives the independent variable and a group that does not.

17. Question 1.17

    What are the strengths and weaknesses of the survey method?

    The biggest strengths of the survey method are that it is quick and direct. Its biggest weakness is that answers may not be accurate because people may lie, want to come across favorably, or be influenced by the wording of the questions.

18. Question 1.18

    Why would a scientist conduct a cross-sectional study?

    It is the quickest and least expensive way to study development over time.

19. Question 1.19

    What are some advantages and disadvantages of longitudinal studies?

    The biggest advantage of longitudinal research is that it is useful in tracing development over many years. Disadvantages include dropout of participants, participants becoming increasingly aware of the questions or the goals of the study, and the influence of the historical context.

20. Question 1.20

    Explain the following statement: “Cross-sequential research combines cross-sectional and longitudinal research.”

    A cross-sequential design lets researchers study several groups at different ages (like a cross-sectional study does) and follow them over time (like a longitudinal study does).

Cautions and Challenges from Science

21. Question 1.21

    Why is it important for academic disciplines and professional societies to follow codes of ethics?

    A code of ethics is important to protect both the integrity of research participants and the research itself.

22. Question 1.22

    What is one additional question about development that should be answered?

    Do we know enough about prenatal drug abuse to protect every fetus?
    Do we know enough about poverty to enable everyone to be healthy?
    Do we know enough about same-sex relationships, or polygamy, or single parenthood, or divorce to make sure all people develop well no matter what their family structure?
    Do we know enough about dying to enable everyone to die with dignity?