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What Theories Contribute

Each major theory discussed in this chapter has contributed to our understanding of human development (see Table 2.4):

Psychoanalytic theories make us aware of the impact of early-childhood experiences, remembered or not, on subsequent development.
Behaviorism shows the effect that immediate responses, associations, and examples have on learning, moment by moment and over time.
Cognitive theories bring an understanding of intellectual processes, including that thoughts and beliefs affect every aspect of our development.
Sociocultural theories remind us that development is embedded in a rich and multifaceted cultural context, evident in every social interaction.
Universal theories stress that human differences are less significant than characteristics that are shared by all humans, in every place and era.

Table : TABLE 2.4Five Perspectives on Human Development

Theory	Area of Focus	Fundamental Depiction of What People Do	Relative Emphasis on Nature or Nurture?
Psychoanalytic theory	Psychosexual (Freud) or psychosocial (Erikson) stages	Battle unconscious impulses and overcome major crises.	More nature (biological, sexual impulses, and parent–child bonds)
Behaviorism	Conditioning through stimulus and response	Respond to stimuli, reinforcement, and models.	More nurture (direct environment produces various behaviors)
Cognitive theory	Thinking, remembering, analyzing	Seek to understand experiences while forming concepts.	More nature (mental activity and motivation are key)
Sociocultural theory	Social context, expressed through people, language, customs	Learn the tools, skills, and values of society through apprenticeships.	More nurture (interaction of mentor and learner, within contexts)
Universal perspective	Needs and impulses that all humans share as a species	Develop impulses, interests, and patterns to survive and reproduce.	More nature (needs and impulses apply to all humans)

eclectic perspective The approach taken by most developmentalists, in which they apply aspects of each of the various theories of development rather than adhering exclusively to one theory.

No comprehensive view of development can ignore any of these theories, yet each has encountered severe criticism. Psychoanalytic theory has been faulted for being too subjective; behaviorism, for being too mechanistic; cognitive theory, for undervaluing emotions; sociocultural theory, for neglecting individuals; and universal theories, for slighting cultural, gender, and economic variations. Most developmentalists prefer an eclectic perspective, choosing what they consider the best aspects of each theories. Rather than adopt any one of these theories exclusively, they make selective use of all of them.

Being eclectic, not tied to any one theory, is beneficial because everyone, scientist as well as layperson, tends to be biased. It is easy to dismiss alternative points of view, but using all five theories opens our eyes and minds to aspects of development that we might otherwise ignore. As one overview of seven developmental theories (including those explained here) concludes, “Because no one theory satisfactorily explains development, it is critical that developmentalists be able to draw on the content, methods, and theoretical concepts of many theories” (Miller, 2011, p. 437).

As you will see in many later chapters, theories provide a fresh look at behavior. Imagine a parent and a teacher discussing a child’s actions. Each suggests a possible explanation that makes the other say, “I never thought of that.” If they listen to each other with an open mind, together they understand the child better. Having five theories is like having five perceptive observers. All five are not always on target, but it is better to use theory to expand perception than to stay in one narrow groove. A hand functions best with five fingers, although each finger is different and some fingers are more useful than others.

SUMMING UP

Theories are needed to suggest hypotheses, to spur investigation, and, finally, to collect data and form conclusions so that empirical evidence can replace untested assumptions. All five of the major theories have met with valid criticism, but each has also advanced our understanding of human development. Most developmentalists are eclectic, making selective use of all these theories and others. This helps guard against bias and keeps scientists, parents, students, and everyone else open to alternative explanations for the complexity of human life.