Quotations, summaries, paraphrases, and facts will support your argument, but they cannot speak for you. You can use several strategies to integrate information from research sources into your paper while maintaining your own voice.
Using quotations appropriately
In academic writing, keep the emphasis on your ideas and your language; use your own words to summarize and to paraphrase your sources and to explain your points. Sometimes, however, quotations can be the most effective way to integrate a source.
Limiting your use of quotations Although it is tempting to insert many quotations in your paper and to use your own words only for connecting passages, do not quote excessively. It is almost impossible to integrate numerous quotations smoothly into your own text.
when to use quotations
It is not always necessary to quote full sentences from a source. To reduce your reliance on the words of others, you can often integrate language from a source into your own sentence structure.
As Hurst has pointed out, until “an outcry erupted in the Northern press,” even the Confederates did not deny that there had been a massacre at Fort Pillow.4
Union surgeon Dr. Charles Fitch testified that after he was in custody he “saw” Confederate soldiers “kill every negro that made his appearance dressed in Federal uniform.”20
Using the ellipsis mark To condense a quoted passage, you can use the ellipsis mark (three periods, with spaces between) to indicate that you have left words out. What remains must be grammatically complete.
Union surgeon Fitch’s testimony that all women and children had been evacuated from Fort Pillow before the attack conflicts with Forrest’s report: “We captured . . . about 40 negro women and children.”6
The writer has omitted several words not relevant to the issue at hand: 164 Federals, 75 negro troops, and.
When you want to leave out one or more full sentences, use a period before the three ellipsis dots. For an example, see the long quotation below.
Ordinarily, do not use the ellipsis mark at the beginning or at the end of a quotation. Readers will understand that the quoted material is taken from a longer passage, so such marks are not necessary. The only exception occurs when you have dropped words at the end of the final quoted sentence. In such cases, put three ellipsis dots before the closing quotation mark.
using sources responsibly: Make sure omissions and ellipsis marks do not distort the meaning of your source.
Using brackets Brackets allow you to insert words of your own into quoted material to clarify a confusing reference or to keep a sentence grammatical in the context of your own writing.
According to Albert Castel, “It can be reasonably argued that he [Forrest] was justified in believing that the approaching steamships intended to aid the garrison [at Fort Pillow].”7
note: Use the word sic, italicized and in brackets, to indicate that an error in a quoted sentence appears in the original source. (An example appears below.) Do not overuse sic to call attention to errors in a source. Sometimes paraphrasing is a better option. (See 39c.)
Setting off long quotations Chicago style allows you some flexibility in deciding whether to set off a long quotation or run it into your text. You may want to set off a quotation of more than four or five typed lines of text; almost certainly you should set off quotations of ten or more lines. To set off a quotation, indent it one-half inch from the left margin and use the normal right margin. Double-space the indented quotation.
Long quotations should be introduced by an informative sentence, usually followed by a colon. Quotation marks are unnecessary because the indented format tells readers that the passage is taken word-for-word from the source.
In a letter home, Confederate officer Achilles V. Clark recounted what happened at Fort Pillow:
Words cannot describe the scene. The poor deluded negroes would run up to our men fall upon their knees and with uplifted hands scream for mercy but they were ordered to their feet and then shot down. The whitte [sic] men fared but little better. . . . I with several others tried to stop the butchery and at one time had partially succeeded[,] but Gen. Forrest ordered them shot down like dogs, and the carnage continued.8
Using signal phrases to integrate sources
Whenever you include a paraphrase, summary, or direct quotation of another writer’s work in your paper, prepare your readers for it with introductory words called a signal phrase. A signal phrase names the author of the source and often provides some context for the source material.
When you write a signal phrase, choose a verb that is appropriate for the way you are using the source (see 63a). Are you providing background, explaining a concept, supporting a claim, lending authority, or refuting a belief? By choosing an appropriate verb, you can make your source’s role clear. See the chart at the bottom of the page for a list of verbs commonly used in signal phrases.
Note that Chicago style calls for verbs in the present tense or present perfect tense (points out, has pointed out) to introduce source material unless you include a date that specifies the time of the original author’s writing.
The first time you mention an author, use the full name: Shelby Foote argues. . . . When you refer to the author again, you may use the last name only: Foote raises an important question.
Marking boundaries Readers should be able to move from your own words to the words of a source without feeling a jolt. Avoid dropping quotations into the text without warning. Instead, provide clear signal phrases, usually including the author’s name, to indicate the boundary between your words and the source’s words. (The signal phrase is highlighted in the second example.)
dropped quotation
Not surprisingly, those testifying on the Union and Confederate sides recalled events at Fort Pillow quite differently. Unionists claimed that their troops had abandoned their arms and were in full retreat. “The Confederates, however, all agreed that the Union troops retreated to the river with arms in their hands.”9
quotation with signal phrase
Not surprisingly, those testifying on the Union and Confederate sides recalled events at Fort Pillow quite differently. Unionists claimed that their troops had abandoned their arms and were in full retreat. “The Confederates, however,” writes historian Albert Castel, “all agreed that the Union troops retreated to the river with arms in their hands.”9
Using signal phrases with summaries and paraphrases As with quotations, introduce most summaries and paraphrases with a signal phrase that mentions the author and places the material in the context of your own writing. Readers will then understand where the summary or paraphrase begins.
Without the signal phrase (highlighted) in the following example, readers might think that only the last sentence is being cited, when in fact the whole paragraph is based on the source.
According to Jack Hurst, official Confederate policy was that black soldiers were to be treated as runaway slaves; in addition, the Confederate Congress decreed that white Union officers commanding black troops be killed. Confederate Lieutenant General Kirby Smith went one step further, declaring that he would kill all captured black troops. Smith’s policy never met with strong opposition from the Richmond government.10
Integrating statistics and other facts When you are citing a statistic or another specific fact, a signal phrase is often not necessary. In most cases, readers will understand that the citation refers to the statistic or fact (not the whole paragraph).
Of the 295 white troops garrisoned at Fort Pillow, 168 were taken prisoner. Black troops fared worse, with only 58 of 262 captured and most of the rest presumably killed or wounded.12
There is nothing wrong, however, with using a signal phrase to introduce a statistic or another fact.
Putting source material in context Readers should not have to guess why source material appears in your paper. A signal phrase can help you make the connection between your own ideas and those of another writer by setting up how a source will contribute to your paper (see 52a).
If you use another writer’s words, you must explain how they relate to your point. It’s a good idea to embed a quotation between sentences of your own. In addition to introducing it with a signal phrase, follow the quotation with interpretive comments that link it to your paper’s argument.
quotation with effective context
In a respected biography of Nathan Bedford Forrest, Hurst suggests that the temperamental Forrest “may have ragingly ordered a massacre and even intended to carry it out—until he rode inside the fort and viewed the horrifying result” and ordered it stopped.15 While this is an intriguing interpretation of events, even Hurst would probably admit that it is merely speculation.
note: When you bring other sources into a conversation about your research topic, you are synthesizing (see 55c).
hackerhandbooks.com/bedhandbook
To avoid monotony, try to vary both the language and the placement of your signal phrases.
Model signal phrases
In the words of historian James M. McPherson, “ . . . ”1
As Dudley Taylor Cornish has argued, “ . . . ”2
In a letter to his wife, a Confederate soldier who witnessed the massacre wrote that “ . . . ”3
“ . . . ,” claims Benjamin Quarles.4
“ . . . ,” writes Albert Castel, “ . . . ”5
Shelby Foote offers an intriguing interpretation: “ . . . ”6
Verbs in signal phrases
| admits | compares | insists | rejects |
| agrees | confirms | notes | reports |
| argues | contends | observes | responds |
| asserts | declares | points out | suggests |
| believes | denies | reasons | thinks |
| claims | emphasizes | refutes | writes |