THE RHETORICAL SITUATION
Purpose The dramatic filmmaker’s purpose is to tell a story that entertains and reveals something about human experience. Some filmmakers, such as Danny Boyle, focus on stories in which characters engage in some kind of struggle and seek to overcome obstacles. For example, his film Slumdog Millionaire focuses on the violence and dire poverty that a fictional character named Jamal and other “slumdogs” face growing up in the poorest neighborhoods of Mumbai, India.
Dramatic filmmakers tell stories in some of the same ways that fiction writers do. They tell a good story by creating realistic characters and situations, and by using the tools at their disposal—camera angles, sound, props, costuming, and lighting—to shape viewers’ experiences.
Which films (mainstream or independent) have most resonated with you? Have you ever rewatched a favorite film? How has your viewing experience changed over time? Why?
Audience Like fiction writers, dramatic filmmakers create works for a variety of audiences—from broad, popular audiences to narrower, more critical audiences, and all points in between. The success of mainstream filmmakers (such as Steven Spielberg) who aim to create blockbuster films for the widest possible audience is measured by public response (or the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences) and rewarded with nominations and awards. The success of filmmakers with different purposes, smaller budgets, and stories that will appeal to select or even cult audiences (such as John Waters) is measured by the response and recognition of that smaller audience—which might include independent film critics, film scholars, attendees of specialty film festivals, and other niche filmmakers. As is true for fiction, there are many subgenres of dramatic films, including comedies, romances, and crime.
Some dramatic films are action-based, such as the thriller/spy film The Bourne Identity. Some are romances or romantic comedies, such as Love, Actually. Some are horror films such as The Exorcist or the campy and gruesome Night of the Living Dead, featured later in this chapter. Popular filmmakers can do much to influence their viewers because films can have far-reaching cultural effects; for example, Francis Ford Coppola’s The Godfather gave several generations of Americans a dramatic story about the inner workings of a crime family—a fictional story that shaped popular ideas about the Mafia. Alfred Hitchcock’s Psycho terrified audiences in 1960 and raised the bar in terms of exposing audiences to suspense, violence, and insanity.
Rhetorical appeals Because dramatic filmmakers aim to reveal something about human experience, they use pathos to help viewers connect emotionally to the story being told on the screen. For example, in The King’s Speech, when King George VI (played by Colin Firth) is finally able to give a speech without fumbling and stuttering, viewers are meant to feel the same sense of relief and celebration that the king’s audience experiences; collectively, viewers and characters exhale. Filmmakers also need to establish ethos in dramatic films—they need to establish their ethos as composers and also the ethos of their stories, especially if the film is based on real events or people. They can further reinforce ethos, for example, by using costumes, music, and props that reflect the time period represented and the mood they wish to create.
Modes & media Dramatic films bring together audio and visual modes of communication. The audio includes the dialogue of the characters, the background sounds, and the musical soundtrack. The visual aspect of the film is achieved through framing, perspective, and lighting. Movies are often either in a film reel format or a digital format.
THE GENRE’S CONVENTIONS
Elements of the genre
Do you have a favorite movie soundtrack? If so, do you like the music because of its role in the film—or perhaps because you like the artist or the way the songs work outside of the film, as a collection?
Story arc. The story arc (or plot) of a dramatic film is similar in structure to a that of a play (or even of a short story). In the exposition, the filmmaker sets up the story, introducing characters, setting, time, and the beginnings of the conflict. This is followed by the rising action, in which the filmmaker develops the conflict (often introducing subconflicts) and moves the film toward the climax, or turning point, of the story. From the climax, the filmmaker moves the story toward a conclusion (falling action to denouement) in which the conflict moves toward resolution and a conclusion. In Frank Capra’s It’s a Wonderful Life, James Stewart plays George Bailey, who on Christmas Eve, discovers that his company, the Bailey Building and Loan bank, is destined for doom and his future is threatened by the possibility of bank fraud. He ends up (spoiler alert!) crashing his car, and after getting drunk, walks toward a bridge, intending to end his life; there he is saved by Clarence, an angel, who takes him on a tour of what his town, Bedford Falls, and its inhabitants would have experienced if George had never been born. Watching this wakes George up and he realizes that he wants to remain alive and rescue the town from its impending doom.
Music. Dramatic filmmakers use music to create tension and to influence viewers’ emotional response. In Francis Ford Coppola’s Apocalypse Now, there is a key war scene where the helicopters are approaching a village and Richard Wagner’s “Ride of the Valkyries” plays loudly in the background to emphasize the tension and destruction that is about to occur. In horror movies such as Psycho, the soundtrack amplifies the violence taking place on screen and can be as memorable and unsettling as the visuals.
Acting/performance. How effectively an actor portrays a character narrows the distance between the imagined film and the reality of the situation the film portrays. For example, in the closing emotional scene of Brokeback Mountain, the actor Heath Ledger, who plays Ennis Del Mar, stands before his open closet, revealing to the viewer a postcard of the mountain and two shirts (Ennis’s shirt covering Jack’s shirt). At this moment, the viewer feels Ennis’s pain and loss.
Style
Screenplay/script. Filmmakers create screenplays that include both the dialogue (what the characters say) and the action (what the characters are doing and what else is happening in the background). A shooting script will also include specific techniques, such as shot instructions (int. living room) or transitions between film shots (DISSOLVE TO).
Dialogue. Filmmakers create dialogue that will develop characters, advance the plot, and illustrate conflict. Dialogue can establish a character’s level of education, economic status, and his or her relationship to other characters and to the story itself. The use of idiomatic expressions and vocabulary can also reinforce the film’s geographic location and historical period.
Design
Shots. Camera angles orient viewers toward what the filmmaker wants them to see—and allow them to see it from the perspective that is most appropriate for the scene and story. If the filmmaker uses a high-angle shot, viewers get the sense of being onlookers; if he or she uses an eye-level shot, viewers are invited into the story—into the eye of the character. Filmmakers choose and vary long shots and close-ups, depending on the purpose behind a given scene, and how they want the audience to experience it.
Costumes. In a dramatic film, costumes make characters more realistic. In Danny Boyle’s Slumdog Millionaire, characters are dressed to look like they live in the slums; their dirty, ripped clothes emphasize their impoverished conditions. In The Godfather, mob characters are dressed in expensive black suits, showing their social and professional status and access to money. In Night of the Living Dead, flesh-eating zombies wear dusty torn clothes that hang from their stiff frames.
Lighting. Lighting dramatizes certain events in a film. For example, in Slumdog Millionaire, the scene of Jamal’s interrogation is lit starkly to emphasize the tension of the moment.
Sound effects. Like lighting, sound creates mood and emphasis. For example, a filmmaker might build tension and hint at disaster with a slow rumble or sudden clap of thunder. Another way to do this is with a musical soundtrack—think of the notes that accompany the shark as it circles its victims in Jaws, or effects such as the heavy reverb of Darth Vader or cheerful chirps of R2D2 in Star Wars.
Sets/props. Sets re-create the reality of the film’s setting. If a filmmaker wants the viewers to believe that the film takes place in a quaint European village, he or she will either shoot the movie in a specific village or on a set that approximates that village. For example, in Slumdog Millionaire, the set of the game show in the movie looks just like the set of the actual program Who Wants to Be a Millionaire.
Sources Filmmakers attribute their sources in the credits. If the film is based on an original screenplay, the screenwriter is credited. If the film is based on a previously written book, the author is credited. Also, the place where the film is shot is usually listed in the credits, along with the names of the actors and actresses, film crew, and the music and songs (and their creators) used throughout the film.