THE RHETORICAL SITUATION
Purpose We write memos to share data, summarize events, give instructions, lay out a plan, and explain and get buy-in for our ideas. In some cases, a colleague or manager may ask you to write a memo that provides an update on a project you’re working on, a problem you’re solving, or a schedule you’re planning. Other times, you may decide to write a memo to a specific reader (or readers) with a proposal for getting something done or a plan for making an improvement to a process or product. Often our memos have multiple purposes—not just to inform but to convince our readers to agree with something or to do something specific. For example, let’s say Liz has some ideas for how to make her school’s writing center even better, and she decides to draft a memo to colleagues who can help implement changes. In addition to laying out a sensible proposal, she also needs to persuade readers that (1) the suggested improvements are necessary, (2) her plan is solid and will lead to the necessary improvements, and (3) readers should approve her plan and take the action she recommends.
Memos are often written collaboratively by a group of people who worked on a project together. For instance, a college committee charged with exploring ways to better serve alumni might write a memo to the administrator responsible for alumni communications with their recommendations.
Audience In the workplace, memo writers know that their readers need information in order to take specific actions or make decisions. Their readers also want memos to be accurate, clear, and concise. Readers of instructional memos—or any correspondence that provides instruction—want to learn quickly what needs to be done—and why, when, how, and in what order. Writers of persuasive memos need to develop an ethos of trustworthiness so that readers can trust that the information they need to make a responsible decision is there and is organized logically. (For more on persuasive writing, see Chapter 4.)
Workplace writers need to keep in mind that they always have multiple audiences. Their primary readers are the people they’ve addressed the memo to; they are the ones who will use the information and/or take action based on the content of the memo. Writers’ secondary audiences might include the supervisor(s) of the primary audience. For example, if Amy receives a memo from a colleague with information about a committee Amy serves on, Amy’s supervisor might be “CCed” on the memo, meaning she receives a copy of the memo. Amy’s supervisor might want to be kept in the loop on projects Amy is working on, or she might want to advise Amy on how to prioritize the tasks the memo relates to.
When you write a memo, you are writing as a representative of the company or organization you work for; in many workplaces, your memos, e-mails, and other writings are considered the property of the company or organization. The organization or company that the memo’s author works for should also be considered an audience.
Finally, memos and e-mails can have unforeseen audiences, as is the case when an e-mail is accidentally sent to the wrong person or forwarded by the recipient to people the author may not have intended as readers. Sometimes a memo or e-mail is leaked to the press, as happens with company or government scandals. Internal memos are often presented as evidence in court when companies are charged with crimes. Amid the scandal of the extensive 2009-10 safety recall of Toyota cars, internal memos came to light in which Toyota executives boasting of saving millions in 2007 by putting off U.S. safety regulations they knew would improve their cars’ safety.
Think of the last memo you read, whether at work or school. How well did the writer succeed in connecting with you? How clear and informative was the memo? Were you persuaded to do something specific? What could the writer have done differently or better?
Rhetorical appeals Memo writers appeal most often to readers’ senses of ethos and logos, and sometimes to pathos. Because readers will use the information in the memo to formulate plans, make decisions, and take action, it’s important that they feel that the information contained in the memo is accurate and true. Sometimes an appeal to pathos can help you develop a rapport with your readers.
Modes & medium Memos are text based and writers sometimes include images. For example, if you need to discuss sales figures, you might present them in a chart. Memos can be in print or digital format. Many organizations ask their employees to send memos as e-mails to reduce paper usage. Sending memos digitally also allows readers to archive memos, which saves space and makes it easier to search for particular memos.
THE GENRE’S CONVENTIONS
Elements of the genre
Written to specific recipients. As discussed above, our memos always have multiple audiences. When writing a memo, identify your primary and secondary audiences. To determine if a person is part of your secondary audience, think about (1) to what degree that person would be interested in the information you’re presenting, and (2) what his or her connection is to your primary audience. In Liz’s department, for instance, it’s customary to CC the department’s secretary on any memo about purchases; that’s because the secretary pays the bills.
Answers the questions who, what, when, where, why, and how. Be sure to provide recipients with the information they’ll need to understand your context and purpose. If you’re reporting on a client visit, for example, include the name of the client and his or her company; the date of the visit; a clear statement about the purpose of the visit; a summary of the visit; an explanation of whether or to what extent the purpose of the visit was achieved, and how the purpose was achieved; and an explanation of the next steps. If any of this information is missing, the reader will need to contact the author for more information.
Includes important information in subject line and first paragraph. Use your memo’s subject line to concisely and specifically state what the e-mail is about. “Client visit” is too vague in a company that might make hundreds of client visits every month; “Simpson follow-up visit, June 2011” gives more information for the reader who wants to quickly determine what the memo is about. Use your first paragraph to convey the most important points; many readers will only have time to read the first paragraph carefully, and will then skim the rest of the memo.
Accurate and clear. Whether you are writing to inform, instruct, or persuade, the information in your memo must be correct and easy to understand. This is crucial when providing instructions to a colleague or when supplying information that will be used as the basis for plans and decisions.
Concise and precise. Readers want data, steps to specific tasks, and any arguments for taking action presented succinctly; they also need to be able to skim your memo or e-mail quickly to find what they need. Information must also be precise. For example, telling a company president that “sales are up” may not be enough information for him or her to make an informed decision; the president needs to know that sales are up by 0.5 percent or 3 percent.
Brief. Writers of memos and e-mails strive to be as brief as their subject allows, especially in a busy workplace.
Style
Informal yet professional tone and voice. Memos are internal business documents; colleagues write them to each other. This allows for a certain level of informality; the writing can be friendly yet professional.
Detail. Use details to help your readers understand your purpose. Stating that there “were problems” at a client site won’t be particularly illuminating to your audience. However, if you write, “I encountered problem X. I resolved problem X by doing A, B, and C,” you give readers enough detail to understand the situation.
Design
Headings. Memo headings include the date, recipients’ names, sender’s name, and a descriptive subject line. The names of anyone receiving a copy of the memo (secondary readers) are listed after “CC.” (CC stands for “carbon copy,” an old-fashioned way of producing an instant copy by using carbon paper between two sheets of regular paper). In e-mailed memos, the e-mail’s “To,” “CC,” “From,” and subject lines serve the purpose of a heading. E-mail also makes possible blind CCing, in which an e-mail is CCed to someone who is not listed in the heading. However, blind CCing can be seen as unfair or deceptive, so it’s best to avoid this practice.
Spacing. Memos are usually single-spaced within paragraphs, with an extra line break between paragraphs (rather than indenting paragraphs). This extra white space between paragraphs makes it easier for memos to be read quickly, which is often necessary in a business or organizational setting. E-mailed memos are generally formatted in the same way.
Have you ever read a long paragraph in a document and wished it were in list form? Why?
Numbered and bulleted lists. Because memos are usually read very quickly (or skimmed), format important information so that readers can grasp it quickly. Use numbered and bulleted lists to present brief points of information: A numbered list indicates that order matters; a bulleted list indicates that order is not as important. In a memo about steps taken to solve a client’s printer issues, for example, a numbered list would give which steps were taken and in what order.
Sources Include sources as needed to back up and support your points—and to credit others who have contributed to the ideas you’re presenting. If you’re sending a memo about sales figures to your company’s president, you might refer to a recent sales report. You wouldn’t include a Works Cited page as you would for a research or scholarly article; instead you might refer to the specific report in the body of the memo and attach the report as a separate document. Alternatively, you could copy and paste it directly into your memo.