THE RHETORICAL SITUATION

Purpose The main purpose of a documentary film is to inform viewers about a real-life subject or event. Documentary filmmakers always present information from a particular point of view; for example, the documentary film Scratch by Doug Pray focuses on the perspective of hip-hop DJs themselves rather than that of their audiences. In addition to informing viewers, documentary filmmakers often seek to persuade viewers to see their subject in a particular way. Michael Moore’s documentaries, mentioned above, are often politically charged; one of his implied purposes is to cast suspicion on political views he does not hold. Finally, documentaries tell a kind of story about their subjects, as the nature documentary March of the Penguins does. The filmmaker informs audiences about penguin migration, presenting mother penguins—who must travel to a distant sea to find food to bring back for their young—as heroes battling brutal weather.

Audience Filmmakers create documentaries for people who are curious about a subject, or who want to better understand a difficult or complex event. For example, filmmaker Alex Gibney, creator of Enron: The Smartest Guys in the Room, kept in mind that his film would appeal to an audience interested in corporate corruption. Films about musicians appeal to music lovers, such as the documentary No Direction Home: Bob Dylan. Other filmmakers document international subjects. For example the creators of Control Room—which documents Al Jazeera, an Arabic news outlet—draws an audience interested in Al Jazeera and the news coverage of the Iraq war.

Rhetorical appeals Documentary filmmakers achieve their purposes by presenting carefully selected and edited interviews and shots. Documentary filmmakers mediate reality, meaning that they present a version of it. For example, filmmakers choose interviewees because they are compelling speakers and/or because they’re experts in the subject. Filmmakers choose images that are striking and memorable, and organize and present information coherently. Everything in the film must contribute to a sense of a story being told. Documentary filmmakers must appeal to their audience’s sense of ethos, since all aspects of the film are seen as a version of truth. Additionally, documentary filmmakers might also appeal to their audience based on logos if they are building an argument, and/or pathos if they want to engage their audience emotionally.

Modes & media Documentary filmmakers use visuals and audio to convey information. Visuals can be live footage, such as shots of people or places, or historical/archival footage that they can integrate with the present. For example, in No Direction Home: Bob Dylan, filmmakers mixed concert footage with interviews. Audio for a documentary can include music, dialogue, sound effects, or voice-over narration. You can watch a documentary in a theater, on TV, and on your computer screen.

THE GENRE’S CONVENTIONS

Elements of the genre

Based on a real-life person or event. The subjects of documentary films are typically based on actual people (Marley) or on events (March of the Penguins). It is this nonfiction element that separates documentary films from other film genres. Even though documentaries reside in the world of nonfiction, the films usually tell a story. In the case of March of the Penguins, the film tells the story of penguins during one breeding cycle in Antarctica. When choosing a compelling subject for a documentary, some filmmakers decide to highlight specific social issues. For example, in the documentary film Born into Brothels, the filmmakers chose to highlight their experiences with children in the red-light district of Calcutta.

Based on primary research, including interviews. Documentary filmmakers interview people directly connected to the film’s subject. Some are experts, such as Robert McNamara in The Fog of War, who was the secretary of defense during the Vietnam War and was heavily involved in its planning. Other times, filmmakers choose interviewees who have less-quantifiable expertise, as in the case of the “man on the street” interviews that Michael Moore uses in his documentaries, where random people are questioned about their opinions on a subject, such as gun violence. Interview subjects are often identified with a byline listing their name and qualification to be interviewed on the subject.

Not staged; shows people in the context of their environment. Documentary films are not usually scripted. Instead filmmakers shoot footage of actual events. For example, Grey Gardens, a documentary about two eccentric socialites (mother and daughter) related to the Kennedy family, shows the women in their dirty house, surrounded by cats, old food, and growing piles of newspapers. It also shows the women entertaining guests, singing, and arguing. When documentary filmmakers anticipate an event, they might set up for a particular shot. For example, a filmmaker might be shooting a documentary about the running of the bulls in Pamplona, Spain, and know that at a particular moment, bulls will charge through the street; the filmmaker might stage the shot in that case, making sure to use the proper lighting and lenses to capture the desired effect.

May include archival footage. Filmmakers working with historical subjects often rely on archival footage, including clips from older films, such as newsreels or other documentaries. This footage has been filmed by someone else, not the documentary filmmaker. For instance, in the documentary The Agony and the Ecstasy of Phil Spector, the filmmaker uses archival footage of Spector’s 2007 murder trial, integrating it into the film to provide information and context for Spector’s life story.

Uses voice-over narration. Documentary filmmakers often use voice-over narration while visuals are shown. A voice-over often provides background information or facts that provide context for what the viewer sees. A popular voice-over narrator is David Riley, who is the voice behind many National Geographic documentaries.

Style

Is carefully edited after shooting. Documentary filmmakers shoot lots of footage—but often it’s in the editing room, after the filming is done, that they identify their main focus. Filmmakers and editors go through a process of reviewing all footage to decide what to highlight, what the story arc is, where to begin, how to move the film to a heightened level of tension, and how to end. During the editing process, the filmmaker might take one hour of footage and edit it down to one minute.

Provides detail. Details are crucial to bringing subjects to life in a documentary film. For example, in March of the Penguins, filmmakers show every aspect of the birds’ yearly mating ritual. In a scene where the female moves the egg to the male, the filmmakers carefully focus on the female pushing the egg onto the male’s feet. By emphasizing every bit of detail in this process, viewers can appreciate the fragility of the moment and the ultimate fragility of life in the Antarctic.

Conveys an author (or narrator’s) tone and voice. Tone in a documentary film is established by its narrator, who may be the filmmaker himself or herself or an actor hired for the part. The voice typically needs to have a quality of authority in order to establish ethos—especially if the purpose of the film is not just to inform but to persuade viewers into taking action. Such was the case with Al Gore’s An Inconvenient Truth, for example.

Includes secondary images, called B-roll, to add interest and texture. B-roll film refers to any extra footage shot; filmmakers use it during the editing process to supplement interviews, illustrate and provide context, or smooth transitions between shots that are not consecutive. B-roll footage can also establish background for an issue in the film. For example, in Al Gore’s An Inconvenient Truth, footage from Hurricane Katrina illustrates issues of global warming.

Design

Use of shots and framing. A film shot is a continuously filmed scene. How material will appear depends on the camera angle and distance between the camera and the subject, among other elements. Filmmakers often use close-up shots to create a sense of intimacy between the subject and audience, and long shots to show a large expanse of space. For instance, the creators of March of the Penguins use long shots showing thousands of penguins lined up on an Antarctic ice shelf to emphasize the sheer numbers of penguins, while Errol Morris, creator of The Fog of War, uses many close-ups of Robert McNamara to reinforce that the documentary is told from his perspective.

Use of lighting. Filmmakers use lighting to emphasize the subject of their documentaries; they film in natural light when possible, but usually need artificial light to avoid glare and shadows (unless they want shadows, to create a particular effect or mood).

Use of music. Documentary makers edit music into their films to convey emotion, to draw out particular viewer responses to specific scenes, and to smooth transitions between clips. They can also use music to connect a scene to a specific historical moment. For example, if a documentary is focused on the counterculture movement of the 1960s, then the sound editor might decide to include music from the Grateful Dead to orient the viewer to that time.

Use of sound. Filmmakers use sound to emphasize mood, reinforce location, and provide a dynamic experience for viewers, among other things. For example, if filmmakers want viewers to feel a sense of intrusion, they might interrupt a quiet scene with a loud doorbell. If they want to give viewers a sense of a setting, such as a chaotic foreign city, they might use a cacophony of voices from a marketplace. They might also play with volume, varying quietness and loudness, and balancing sound between speakers.

Sources Documentary filmmakers attribute their sources in the ending credits and throughout the film by naming people being interviewed or identifying scenes being shot. Because documentary filmmakers aim to inform, scrupulous citing of sources is very important and viewers watching a documentary usually know exactly where information in the film came from. In his 2006 documentary An Inconvenient Truth, for instance, Al Gore frequently cites specific scientists who provided data for the film.