Chapter 86. Cognition Influences Conditioning

Learning Objectives

classical conditioning

a simple form of learning that involves forming an association between two stimuli

cognitive

refers to the mental activities involved in perceiving, remembering, thinking, and reasoning

conditioned response (CR)

in classical conditioning, a response that, after conditioning, is triggered by a formerly neutral stimulus

conditioned stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioning, an initially neutral stimulus that, after conditioning, is able to trigger a response

conditioned association

a learned connection between two events that occur close together in time

experiment

a method of research that manipulates an independent variable to measure its effect on a dependent variable

learning

changing your behavior or your knowledge as a result of experience

neutral stimulus (NS)

in classical conditioning, an event that produces no response (is ignored)

stimulus

an external event, such as a light or sound, detected by our senses

unconditioned response (UR)

in classical conditioning, a response that is automatically triggered by a stimulus event

unconditioned stimulus (US)

in classical conditioning, an event that automatically triggers a response; no learning is required

Cognition Influences Conditioning

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Learning Objective:

Describe Rescorla’s research on the predictive value of the conditioned stimulus (CS) in classical conditioning.

illustration show a dog with one 'thought balloon'; content of thought balloons should have images evoking classical conditioning experiments, such as a bell, a bowl of food

Review

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1. In classical conditioning, two stimulus events that repeatedly occur close together in time eventually become associated with one another. Initially, researchers believed that this contiguity (close connection in timing) was the “glue” that allowed the conditioned association to form.

86.0.1 Review

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The image is a line graph with one line. The X axis is labeled “Does the CS signal the arrival of the US?” and has two options - CS rarely predicts US, and CS consistently predicts US. The Y axis is labeled “Strength of conditioned association” and ranges from low to high. The line in the graph is straight and goes from the bottom left of the graph, where the strength is low and the CS rarely predicts the US, to the top right of the graph, where the strength is high and the CS consistently predicts the US.

2. However, research by Robert Rescorla and Allan Wagner demonstrated that there is a strong cognitive component to classical conditioning. Rats quickly and easily learn associations when the conditioned stimulus (CS) consistently and uniquely predicts the arrival of the unconditioned stimulus (US). When the CS has lower predictive value, conditioning takes longer, or doesn’t occur at all.

86.0.2 Review

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The figures show how a dog responds during conditioning trials in two scenarios, when the bell is presented after the food and when the bell is presented before the food. Bell presented after food: Over time the dog is presented with the dog food, which is the US (the unconditioned stimulus), before a bell, which is the NS (the neutral stimulus). The outcome does not change, the dog does nothing when it hears the bell. Bell presented before food: Over time the dog is exposed to a bell, which is the NS, before the dog food (the US) is presented. This changes the bell from the NS to the CS or conditioned stimulus, which then produces a salivation response (the CR or conditioned response). The outcome is that the dog now salivates when the bell is heard.

3. The word predict is very important in classical conditioning. If a neutral stimulus (NS) comes after the US, no learning occurs, and the NS never becomes a CS. The NS (in this case, a bell) doesn’t allow the dog to anticipate the arrival of the US (the food). The NS by itself will not be able to produce a conditioned response (CR) (drooling).

86.0.3 Review

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The figures show how a dog responds during conditioning trials in two scenarios, when a horn is consistently presented before food and when a bell is presented only sometimes before food. Horn presented always before food: Over time the dog is always exposed to a horn, which is the NS, before the dog food (the US) is presented. This changes the horn from the NS to the CS or conditioned stimulus, which then produces a salivation response (the CR or conditioned response). The outcome is that the dog now salivates when the horn is heard.

4. If one NS (in this case, a horn) always occurs just prior to the US, while a second NS (a bell) sometimes occurs just prior to the US, what will happen? The NS that reliably predicts the US will become a CS, while the other NS will be ignored.

86.0.4 Review

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The figures show how a dog responds during conditioning trials in two scenarios, when a horn is presented before food but at other times as well, and when a bell is only presented before food. Horn presented before food, but other times also: Over time the dog is exposed to a horn, which is the NS, before the dog food (the US) is presented. However, the horn is also heard at other times when no dog food follows. The outcome is that the bell remains a NS and does not produce a response from the dog. Bell always presented before food: Over time the dog is always exposed to a bell, which is the NS, before the dog food (the US) is presented. This changes the bell from the NS to the CS or conditioned stimulus, which then produces a salivation response (the CR or conditioned response). The outcome is that the dog now salivates when the bell is heard.

5. If two NS events always occur just prior to the US, but one of them also occurs at other times when the US doesn’t appear, what will happen? The NS that uniquely predicts the US will become a CS, and the other NS will be ignored.

Practice 1: Information Value: Timing of Events

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Practice 1: Information Value: Timing of Events

Select each button to see the results for that group of participants.

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In classical conditioning, the timing of the conditioned stimulus (CS) is important. Learning is quicker when the CS and the unconditioned stimulus (US) are close together in time. Robert Rescorla and Allan Wagner demonstrated that the information value of the CS is even more important. We will try to demonstrate that with a simulation of several experiments.

The first experiment involves conditioning an eyeblink. The human participants in this experiment will receive, at random intervals, a puff of air directed at one of their eyes. This air puff is an unconditioned stimulus (US) that automatically produces an unconditioned response (UR)—in this case, an eyeblink. On each conditioning trial, a brief neutral stimulus (NS), a tone, will be presented either just before or just after the air puff. Periodically, we will present the tone without the air puff to see if the tone has become a conditioned stimulus (CS) that can produce an eyeblink, a conditioned response (CR), by itself.

When the tone occurred prior to the air puff, even by as little as a half-second, the tone quickly became a conditioned stimulus (CS) capable of producing an eyeblink on its own. An eyeblink to the tone is a conditioned response (CR).

When the tone occurred after the air puff, or even at the same time as the air puff, the tone never became a conditioned stimulus (CS) capable of producing an eyeblink on its own.

All participants received the tone (NS) in close proximity to the air puff (US), but only when the tone came first did the participants become conditioned to blink to the tone. Why? Because the tone had information value, allowing the participants to predict that the air puff would soon follow.

Practice 2: Information Value: Consistency of Events

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Practice 2: Information Value: Consistency of Events

Select the SHOW ONE TRIAL button to learn about an experiment on fear conditioning in rats.

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The second experiment involves fear conditioning in rats. The rats in this experiment will receive, at random intervals, a painful electric shock to their paws. The shock is a US that automatically produces a UR of fear and distress. On each of those 20 shock trials, the researchers will turn on a light (NS) one second before the shock occurs. On 10 of the trials, a tone (NS) will sound at the same time that the light turns on. After the 20 conditioning trials, at random intervals, either the tone or the light will turn on, to see whether the rat displays a CR of fear to the tone or light, which would then become a CS.

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It appears that the light became a CS capable of producing fear, but the rats did not develop a conditioned fear of the tone. Why not? Remember that the light occurred on every shock trial, but the tone occurred only half of the time. The light provided more “information value” about the coming shock. The tone was redundant (it provided no unique information), so the rats seemed to ignore the tone.

Select the NEXT button and move to Practice 3.

Practice 3: Information Value: Unusual Events

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Practice 3: Information Value: Unusual Events

Select the SHOW TRIAL SEQUENCE button to learn about an experiment on conditioning the salivary response in dogs.

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The final experiment involves conditioning the salivary response in dogs. The hungry dogs in this experiment will receive, at random intervals, a small but delicious food treat. The food is a US that automatically causes the dog to salivate (UR). On each of 20 food trials, the researchers will first open and close the door to the lab room (NS), then blow a whistle (NS), and then present the food (US). After the 20 conditioning trials, at random intervals, the researchers will either open and close the lab room door or whistle, to see whether the dog displays a CR of saliva to the door or the whistle, which would then be called a CS.

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The dogs clearly became conditioned to salivate to the whistle, but the sound of the door did not become a CS. Why not? Because the dogs heard the lab door open and close dozens of times every day, and most of the time the sound of the door had no connection to the arrival of the food treat. Even though the door sound always preceded the treat, the door sound had low information value compared to the whistle, which uniquely allowed the dogs to predict that the food was coming soon.

Quiz 1

multi_mc_test

Quiz 1

Select the best answer for each question. When both questions have been answered, select the CHECK ANSWER button.

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Try to answer the questions again.

Classical conditioning is fastest and strongest when:

the NS occurs shortly after the US.

the NS occurs shortly before the US.

the NS and the US occur at exactly the same time.

more than one NS is presented along with the US.

The predictability rather than the frequency of NS-US associations appears to be crucial for classical conditioning. This highlights the importance of ________ in conditioning.

biological predispositions

latent learning

intrinsic motivation

cognitive processes

Quiz 2

mc_test

Quiz 2

Select the most likely outcome to answer the question. Then, select the CHECK ANSWER button.

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Try to answer the question again.

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Many countries use “speed cameras” to photograph drivers that exceed the posted speed limits. When speeding drivers pass a speed camera, they feel anxious and distressed, because they realize an expensive speeding ticket will soon arrive in their mail. In order to reduce the average speed in a congested area, the authorities often post many signs warning about speed cameras, even if there are no speed cameras at that location. Based on Rescorla’s research, what is the likely outcome of the overuse of these signs?

Drivers will avoid roads that contain many speed camera warning signs, because those signs produce feelings of distress.

Drivers will become angry and frustrated when they see speed camera warning signs, because those signs predict the existence of speed cameras.

Drivers will begin to ignore speed camera warning signs, because the signs have low information value in predicting the location of actual speed cameras.

Conclusion

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illustration: Show a dog with one “thought balloon”; content of thought balloons should have images evoking classical conditioning experiments, such as a bell, a bowl of food