Chapter 103. Theories of Intelligence

Learning Objectives

analytical intelligence
in Sternberg’s theory, the ability to adapt to an academic or scientific context to solve problems by breaking them into components
cognition
the mental processes of thinking, perceiving, remembering, and reasoning
creative intelligence
in Sternberg’s theory, the ability to adapt to unusual contexts, gaining insights by synthesizing information to solve problems in new ways
emotional intelligence
ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions
environment
external influences from the physical and social world
factor analysis
a statistical procedure for identifying clusters of related items within a set of data
g factor
general intelligence that underlies all mental abilities; emphasized by Spearman’s theory
intelligence
mental capacity to learn from experience and adapt effectively to a particular environment
memory
the process of remembering information that has been learned
multiple intelligences
Gardner’s theory that there are eight or nine distinct intelligences, each controlled by a different part of the brain
practical intelligence
in Sternberg’s theory, the ability to adapt to the context of everyday life in order to solve real-world problems; sometimes called street smarts
primary mental abilities
Thurstone’s name for seven specific forms of intelligence: word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial visualization, number facility, associative memory, reasoning, and perceptual speed
s factors
specific forms of intelligence that support distinct mental abilities; emphasized by the theories of Thurstone and Gardner
savant syndrome
a condition in which a person who has very low overall intelligence but possesses one extraordinary skill
social intelligence
ability to understand and interact effectively with other people
statistic
a calculated number that summarizes important information about a distribution of scores
The Cerebral Cortex
true
true
true
Illustration: Show a word cloud of terms related to intelligence, with all the terms located with an outline drawing of a human brain in side view, and the word “INTELLIGENCE” in all caps superimposed over the center of the brain image; except for the word “intelligence,” the words can be displayed in any orientation, and in different fonts, sizes, and colors; the word cloud should contain these terms, each of which could be repeated several times if necessary: “creativity, competence, flexible, adaptable, success, thinking, imagination, expertise, cognitive, successful, philosophy, science, analysis, synthesis, integration, communication, brain, psychology, neuroscience, practical, smart”
Learning Objectives:

Contrast the major theories of intelligence.

Identify the components of Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences.

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1. All humans share some fundamental similarities in cognition—perceiving the environment, learning and remembering information, thinking, solving problems, and using language. Yet there are differences among people in the effectiveness of these processes, and the concept of intelligence is used to describe individual differences in cognitive abilities.

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Illustration: Show human brain from side view, with no head visible; show representation of lightning bolts or flashes of electricity emanating from regions of the brain

2. Most people talk about intelligence as though it were a single thing, somewhat like water in a bucket. We consider “bright” individuals as having lots of it—a full bucket—and “dull” people as having less. This common-sense view is challenged by the fact that brain damage may diminish one specific ability but not others, and by savant syndrome, a condition in which a person of very limited overall intelligence has a single ability that is truly exceptional, such as an amazing memory for music, numbers, or spatial relationships.

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Illustration: simple Illustration of a sphere with label “Intelligence”; reference image by T. Ludwig

3. Research by psychologist Charles Spearman supported the view that intelligence is a single general ability. Spearman administered many different tests of mental abilities, then used a statistical procedure called factor analysis to identify clusters of similar results, with each cluster defining a “factor” such as mathematical reasoning, spatial abilities, or verbal fluency.

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Illustration: Show same large sphere as in page 4, but now the sphere has label “General intelligence (g)”; embedded within the large sphere are three smaller spheres, each with label “s” (in lowercase); reference image by T. Ludwig

4. Spearman called these intelligence clusters s factors because each indicated a specific ability. However, Spearman noted that people who were high on one factor tended to be high on the others, and those with low scores on one test tended to have low scores on all of them. Spearman argued that underlying all mental abilities was a single g factor, or general intelligence.

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Illustration: Show Thurstone’s primary mental abilities; at center, show rectangle with large label “Intelligence”; arranged below, show seven rectangles, each connected to the intelligence rectangle with a single-headed arrow; lower rectangles have labels “Word fluency” “Verbal comprehension” “Reasoning” “Associative memory” “Number facility” “Spatial visualization” “Perceptual speed”; reference image by T. Ludwig

5. Psychologist Louis Thurstone, who also used factor analysis, initially argued that the g factor doesn’t exist. Instead, he claimed that humans have seven s factors, which he called the primary mental abilities: word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial visualization, number facility, associative memory, reasoning, and perceptual speed. However, later in his career, he proposed a compromise position, stating that intelligence consists of both a general component based on overall brain functioning and several specific components (such as verbal and mathematical skills) that can be influenced by education and practice.

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The image lists the nine types of intelligences identified in Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences.  These include the following: intrapersonal intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, linguistic intelligence, spatial intelligence, musical intelligence, naturalistic intelligence, logical-mathematical intelligence, bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, and existential intelligence.

6. Psychologist Howard Gardner built on Thurstone’s view to propose that humans have eight or nine multiple intelligences, each type relatively independent of the others, and each controlled by a different part of the brain. In addition to the widely accepted distinction between verbal and mathematical abilities, Gardner identified distinct aptitudes for musical accomplishment, for spatially analyzing the visual world, for mastering movement skills (as in dance or sports), and for insightfully understanding ourselves, others, our natural environment, and the meaning and purpose of our lives.

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The image is a triangle with each point representing one of the three forms of intelligence in Sternberg's tribrachic theory. One point of the triangle is analytical intelligence, which includes computational problem solving in an academic context.  The second point of the triangle is practical intelligence, which includes common sense problem solving in a real world context. The third point of the triangle is creative intelligence, which includes imaginative problem solving in a novel context.

7. Psychologist Robert Sternberg argued that Gardner’s multiple intelligences could actually be reduced to three basic forms of intelligence. Sternberg’s triarchic theory proposes that people differ in their analytical intelligence (academic problem solving), their creative intelligence (generating original ideas), and their practical intelligence (accomplishing real-life tasks in their natural context).

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8. Other researchers emphasize intelligence as effective functioning in our social environment. Social intelligence is our ability to understand and interact with the other people around us. Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions. Those who are socially and emotionally “smart” can not only manage their own emotions but also assess other people’s emotions and react appropriately.

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Photo: productive work in a non-western culture
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9. Psychologists now agree that intelligence is a social construct, a concept invented to describe individual differences in cognitive ability. As a result, there is no universally accepted definition of intelligence. Each culture defines intelligence in a slightly different way, emphasizing the characteristics that help people function effectively in that particular environment. In other words, a culture’s definition of intelligence is a reflection of what that culture values in a human being.

Practice 1: Comparing Theories of Intelligence

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Practice 1: Comparing Theories of Intelligence

Roll over each theory of intelligence to see a description.

Spearman’s general intelligence (g)

Thurstone’s primary mental abilities

Gardner’s multiple intelligences

Sternberg’s triarchic theory

Social and emotional intelligence

Key aspects:

There is one general form of intelligence that underlies all mental abilities. It is the earliest comprehensive theory of intelligence, based on evidence from factor analysis.

Rather than one general form of intelligence, there are seven specific forms of intelligence: word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial visualization, number facility, associative memory, reasoning, and perceptual speed.

Rather than one general form of intelligence, there are eight or nine specific intelligences, each controlled by a different part of the brain. It is based partly on evidence from savant syndrome.

There are three specific forms of intelligence, based not on the type of task (language, music, math, art, etc.), but on adapting to a particular context: academic context (analytical intelligence), novel context (creative intelligence), and real-world context (practical intelligence).

Conventional tests of intelligence do not measure the most important abilities for success in jobs and relationships, namely the ability to understand and interact effectively with other people, and the ability to understand and regulate one’s own emotions.

Practice 2: Exploring Multiple Intelligences

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Practice 2: Exploring Multiple Intelligences

Roll over each of Gardner’s types of intelligence to see a description and example.

Spatial
Linguistic
Logical
Naturalist
Musical
Intrapersonal
Interpersonal
Kinesthetic

According to Howard Gardner, spatial intelligence is the ability to perceive the world accurately and to recreate or transform aspects of that world. These people often have acute sensitivity to visual details, can draw their ideas graphically, and can orient themselves easily in 3-D space.

Pablo Picasso, artist

People who have a lot of spatial intelligence would probably be successful in careers such as a sculptor, an architect, or a surveyor

According to Howard Gardner, linguistic intelligence is the ability to use language and display sensitivity to the order of things. These people can argue, persuade, entertain, or instruct through the spoken word.

T. S. Eliot, poet

People who have a lot of linguistic intelligence would probably be successful in careers such as a writer, a poet, or a translator.

According to Howard Gardner, logical-mathematical intelligence is the ability to see the intelligence of numbers and logic, and the ability to handle chains of reasoning and recognize patterns and order. These people think in terms of cause and effect and can create and test hypotheses.

Albert Einstein, scientist

People who have a lot of logical-mathematical intelligence would probably be successful in careers such as a mathematician or a scientist.

According to Howard Gardner, naturalist intelligence is the ability to understand, categorize, and explain patterns encountered in the natural world. These people observe, interpret, and construct meaning from the natural world.

Charles Darwin, biologist

People who have a lot of naturalist intelligence would probably be successful in careers such as a botanist, a farmer, or a forestry worker

According to Howard Gardner, musical intelligence is sensitivity to pitch, melody, rhythm, and tone. These people can sing in tune, keep time to music, and listen to musical selections with discernment.

Igor Stravinsky, composer

People who have a lot of musical intelligence would probably be successful in careers such as a composer, a musician, or a singer.

According to Howard Gardner, intrapersonal intelligence is access to one's emotional life as a means of understanding oneself and others. These people can easily access their own feelings, discriminate among different emotional states, and use this knowledge to enrich and guide their own lives.

Sigmund Freud, psychiatrist

People who have a lot of intrapersonal intelligence would probably be successful in careers such as a therapist, a social worker, or a philosopher.

According to Howard Gardner, interpersonal intelligence is the ability to understand people and relationships. These people can perceive and respond to moods, temperaments, intentions, and the desires of others.

Mahatma Gandhi, leader

People who have a lot of interpersonal intelligence would probably be successful in careers such as a politician, a salesperson, or a religious leader.

According to Howard Gardner, bodily-kinesthetic intelligence is the ability to use the body skillfully and handle objects adroitly. These are hands-on people with good tactile sensitivity.

Martha Graham, dancer

People who have a lot of bodily-kinesthetic intelligence would probably be successful in careers such as an athlete, a dancer, or a surgeon

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Quiz 1

matching_test

Quiz 1

Match the terms with their descriptions by dragging each colored circle to the appropriate gray circle. When all the circles have been placed, select the CHECK ANSWER button.

Select the NEXT button and move to Quiz 2.
Perhaps you should go back to review the theories of intelligence.
analytical intelligence
creative intelligence
emotional intelligence
g factor
multiple intelligences
practical intelligence
primary mental abilities
s factors
savant syndrome
social intelligence
in Sternberg’s theory, the ability to adapt to the context of everyday life in order to solve real-world problems
in Sternberg’s theory, the ability to adapt to unusual contexts, gaining insights by synthesizing information to solve problems in new ways
in Gardner’s theory, eight or nine distinct intelligences that are each controlled by a different part of the brain
ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions
according to Thurstone, name for seven specific forms of intelligence
in Sternberg’s theory, the ability to adapt to an academic or scientific context to solve problems by breaking them into components
general intelligence factor that underlies all mental abilities; emphasized by Spearman’s theory
ability to understand and interact effectively with other people
specific forms of intelligence that support distinct mental abilities; emphasized by the theories of Thurstone and Gardner
a person who has very low overall intelligence but possesses one extraordinary skill

Quiz 2

dnd_test

Quiz 2

Drag the label for each of Gardner’s types of intelligence to the gray area in front of the appropriate description. When all the labels have been placed, select the CHECK ANSWER button.

the ability to use the body skillfully and handle objects adroitly; hands-on people with good tactile sensitivity.
the ability to understand people and relationships, to perceive and respond to the moods, intentions, and desires of others.
the ability to access one's feelings and emotional states as a means of understanding oneself and others.
the ability to use language skillfully to persuade, entertain, or instruct through the spoken word.
the ability to use numbers skillfully, and the ability to handle chains of reasoning and to recognize patterns and order.
the ability to be sensitive to pitch, melody, rhythm, and tone, to sing in tune, and listen to musical selections with discernment.
the ability to understand and explain events encountered in the world of nature, especially with plants and animals.
the ability to perceive the external world accurately and to recreate or transform aspects of that world through art.
Select the NEXT button and move to the Conclusion.
Perhaps you should go back to review Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences.
Spatial
Naturalist
Intrapersonal
Linguistic
Interpersonal
Logical
Musical
Kinesthetic

Conclusion

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