Part 1
01 Making Connections
Why Think of Writing as Conversation?
You Already Know How Conversations Work — Online and Off
Practice: Inventory Your Writing Life
Conversations Help You Share Information, Ideas, and Arguments
Practice: Find a Written Conversation
Conversations Allow You to Adopt Roles
Working Together: Explore Roles
What Should I Know about Writing Situations?
Writing Situations Are Rhetorical Situations
Writing Has a Purpose
Readers Have Purposes, Needs, Interests, Knowledge, and Backgrounds
Writing Builds on the Work of Others
Writing Takes Place in Context
Working Together: Analyze a Writing Situation
What Should I Know about Genre and Design?
Genres Are General Categories of Documents
Design Is a Writing Tool
Genre and Design Are Related
Genres Help Writers Achieve Their Goals
Practice: Analyze a Genre
In Summary: Making Connections
02 Finding and Listening In on Conversations
How Can I Analyze an Assignment?
Assess Your Writing Situation
Determine Your Purpose
Determine Who Your Readers Are and Why they Would Read Your Document
Working Together: Analyze an Assignment
Consider the Role of Sources
Identify the Genre and Context
Note Requirements, Limitations, and Opportunities
How Can I Find Interesting Conversations?
Generate Ideas
Brainstorm
Freewrite
Blindwrite Or Dictate
Loop
Cluster
Map
Ask Questions
Practice: Find a Topic That Interests You
How Can I “Listen In” on Written Conversations?
Discuss the Topic with Others
Observe the Topic Firsthand
Read What Others Have Written
Review Your Sources
Practice: Choose a Conversation
How Can I Prepare for a Successful Writing Project?
Take Ownership
Understand That Writing Is a Process
Find a Conversation and Listen In
Develop Your Ideas
Prepare a Draft
Review and Rewrite
Create a Writer’s Notebook
Manage Your Time
Practice: Create a Project Timeline
In Summary: Finding and Listening In on Conversations
03 Reading to Write
How Can I Read Critically?
Read with an Attitude
Be Aware of Writing Situations
What Strategies Can I Use to Read Actively?
Skim for an Overview
Mark and Annotate
Pay Attention
Recognize the Genre
Consider Illustrations
Record New Information and Challenging Ideas
Identify Similarities and Differences
Understand the Writer’s Argument
Identify the Main Point
Find Reasons and Evidence That Support the Main Point
Working Together: Identify Information in a Source
How Can I Take Notes?
Quote Directly
Paraphrase
Summarize
Use Notes to Connect Sources
How Can I Evaluate Sources?
Determine Relevance
Consider the Use of Evidence
Identify the Author
Learn about the Publisher
Establish Timeliness
Assess Comprehensiveness
Recognize Genre
Examine Digital Sources Closely
Web Sites and Blogs
Newsgroups, E-Mail Lists, and Discussion Forums
Wikis
Practice: Evaluate a Source
How Can I Read Like a Writer?
Read to Understand
Main-Point Summaries
Key-Point Summaries
Outline Summaries
Practice: Summarize a Source
Read to Respond
Agree/Disagree Responses
Reflective Responses
Analytic Responses
Practice: Respond to a Source
Read to Make Connections
Working Together: Make Connections among Sources
In Summary: Reading to Write
04 Working Together
How Can Collaborative Activities Improve My Writing?
Work Together to Generate Ideas
Group Brainstorming
Role-Playing
Working Together: Role-Play
Work Together to Collect and Work with Information
Work Together to Refine Your Argument
How Can I Use Peer Review to Improve My Writing?
Use Peer Review to Enhance Your Writing Process
Use Peer Review to Improve Your Document
Use Peer Review to Succeed on a Major Project
How Can I Conduct an Effective Peer Review?
Consider Context
Consider Technology
Consider Your Needs as a Writer
Consider Your Role as a Reviewer
What Resources Can I Draw on as I Review and Collaborate?
Use Technological Tools
Consult Instructors, Classmates, Friends, and Family
In Summary: Working Together
Part 2
05 Writing to Reflect
Genres in Conversation
What Is Writing to Reflect?
The Writer’s Role: Observer
What Kinds of Documents Are Used to Share Reflections?
Reflective Essays
Cheryl Strayed, What Kind of Woman Are You?
Humor
David Sedaris, Keeping Up
Photo Essays
James Mollison, Where Children Sleep
Literacy Narratives
Salvatore Scibona, Where I Learned to Read (magazine article)
Memoirs
Firoozeh Dumas, Waterloo (book chapter)
Audio Essays
Elvia Bautista, Remembering All the Boys
How Can I Write a Reflective Essay?
In Process: A Reflective Essay about a Family Vacation
Find a Conversation and Listen In
Explore Your Experiences
Ask Questions About Promising Subjects
Working Together: Try It Out Loud
Conduct An Observation
In Process: Conducting an Observation
Reflect on Your Subject
Examine Your Subject
Collect Details
In Process: Making Comparisons
Find Significance
Prepare a Draft
Convey Your Main Idea
Tell a Story
Go into Detail
Choose Your Point of View
Consider Genre and Design
Frame Your Reflections
Review and Improve Your Draft
Ensure That Your Main Idea Is Clear
Examine The Presentation Of Your Observations
Review Dialogue
In Process: Adding Dialogue
Show, Don’t Tell
Peer Review: Improve Your Reflective Essay
Student Essay: Caitlin Guariglia, “Mi Famiglia”
Project Ideas
In Summary: Writing a Reflective Essay
06 Writing to Inform
Genres in Conversation: Informative Writing
What Is Writing to Inform?
The Writer’s Role: Reporter
What Kinds of Documents Are Used to Inform?
Informative Essays
George Chauncey, The Legacy of Antigay Discrimination
Infographics
AVG.com, History of the Internet
Profiles
Colorado State Programs and People, Animal Welfare and Autism Champion
Web Sites
The Centers for Disease Control, Concussion in Sports (Web Site)
Brochures
FEMA, Preparing Your Pets for Emergencies Makes Sense
Maps
The World Bank, World DataBank
How Can I Write an Informative Essay?
In Process: An Informative Essay about the Use of DDT to Prevent Malaria
Find a Conversation and Listen In
Explore Your Interests
Working Together: Try It Out Loud
Use Your Library
In Process: Using the Library Catalog
Ask Questions About Promising Subjects
In Process: Asking Questions
Gather Information
Create a Search Plan
Working Together: Plan Your Search for Sources
Collect Sources
Evaluate Your Sources
In Process: Evaluating Sources
Take Notes
Conduct an Interview
Prepare a Draft
Present Your Main Point
Develop Supporting Points and Evidence
In Process: Developing Support
Working Together: Brainstorm Supporting Points and Evidence
Consider Genre and Design
Frame Your Information
Review and Improve Your Draft
Focus Your Discussion
Ensure Clarity
Review Your Use of Sources
Assess Your Introduction and Conclusion
Peer Review: Improve Your Informative Essay
Student Essay: Ellen Page, “To Spray or Not to Spray: The Issue of DDT Use for Indoor Residual Spraying”
Project Ideas
In Summary: Writing an Informative Essay
07 Writing to Analyze
Genres in Conversation: Analytical Writing
What Is Writing to Analyze?
The Writer’s Role: Interpreter
What Kinds of Documents Are Used to Present an Analysis?
Magazine Articles
Sito Negron, Baghdad, Mexico
Rhetorical Analyses
Brooke Gladstone, The Goldilocks Number
Analytical Blog Posts
Nick Bilton, Disruptions: Digital Era Redefining Etiquette
News Analyses
Chicago Tribune, The Drone Future (newspaper article)
Documentary Films
Adriana Barbaro and Jeremy Earp, Consuming Kids: The Commercialization of Childhood
Analytical Essays
Marlene Zuk, Misguided Nostalgia for Our Paleo Past (book chapter)
How Can I Write an Analytical Essay?
In Process: An Analytical Essay about Football & Health
Find a Conversation and Listen In
Explore Your Surroundings
Ask Interpretive Questions
Working Together: Try It Out Loud
Search Databases
In Process: Searching Databases
Conduct Your Analysis
Refine Your Question
Seek a Fuller Understanding of Your Subject
Apply an Interpretive Framework
In Process: Applying Interpretive Frameworks
Prepare a Draft
Make an Interpretive Claim
Explain Your Interpretation
Working Together: Generate Reasons for Your Interpretation
In Process: Supporting Reasons with Evidence
Consider Genre and Design
In Process: Using a Figure to Support a Point
Frame Your Analysis
Review and Improve Your Draft
Ensure That Your Claim is Debatable
Challenge Your Conclusions
Examine the Application of Your Interpretive Framework
Assess Your Organization
Peer Review: Improve Your Analytical Essay
Student Essay: Ali Bizzul, “Living (and Dying) Large”
Project Ideas
In Summary: Writing an Analytical Essay
08 Writing to Evaluate
Genres in Conversation: Evaluative Writing
What Is Writing to Evaluate?
The Writer’s Role: Evaluator
What Kinds of Documents Are Used to Share Evaluations?
Evaluative Essays
Christina Hoff Sommers and Sally Satel, MD, Emotional Correctness
Media Reviews
Lindsay Zoladz, Review of Thao & the Get Down Stay Down, We the Common
Food Reviews
Steve Garbarino, The Crescent City’s Greatest Po’Boys
Progress Reports
LIFT, oneLIFT 2012 Impact Report
Comparison Tools
U.S. Department of Education, College Scorecard
Rating Web Sites
EnviroMedia Social Marketing & the University of Oregon, Greenwashing Index
How Can I Write an Evaluative Essay
In Process: An Evaluative Essay about Programs to Reduce College Drinking
Find a Conversation and Listen In
Explore Your Needs, Interests, and Concerns
Working Together: Try It Out Loud
Search the Web
In Process: Searching the Web
Narrow Your Focus By Asking Questions
In Process: Focusing on a Subject
Conduct Your Evaluation
Define Your Criteria
Identify Evidence
Make Your Judgments
In Process: Making Judgments
Prepare a Draft
State Your Overall Judgment
Present Your Evaluation
In Process: Using Evidence to Support Judgments
Working Together: Ask Whether Your Judgments Are Fair
Consider Genre and Design
Frame Your Evaluation
Review and Improve Your Draft
Review Your Criteria
Reconsider Your Evidence
Peer Review: Improve Your Evaluative Essay
Ensure That Your Judgments Are Fair and Reasonable
Student Essay: Dwight Haynes, “Making Better Choices: Two Approaches to Reducing College Drinking”
Project Ideas
In Summary: Writing an Evaluative Essay
09 Writing to Solve Problems
Genres in Conversation: Problem-Solving Writing
What Is Writing to Solve Problems?
The Writer’s Role: Problem Solver
What Kinds of Documents Are Used to Solve Problems?
Problem-Solving Essays
Richard H. Thaler and Cass R. Sunstein, How to Make Lazy People Do the Right Thing
Proposals
Dan Hughes, Proposal for Skateparks under Bridges
News Features
Jody Greenstone Miller, How to Get More Working Women to the Top
Guest Editorials
Jim Trainum, Get It on Tape (newspaper article)
Advice
Atul Gawande, Suggestions for Becoming a Positive Deviant (book chapter)
Audio Reports
Cynthia Graber, Fare Start
How Can I Write a Problem-Solving Essay?
In Process: A Problem-Solving Essay about College Tuition
Find a Conversation and Listen In
Explore Difficulties
Working Together: Ask Whether Your Judgments Are Fair
Ask Questions About Promising Subjects
Conduct a Survey
In Process: Developing a Survey
Develop a Solution
Define the Problem
In Process: Defining a Problem
Consider Potential Solutions
In Process: Developing a Solution
Assess the Practicality of Your Solution
Prepare a Draft
Explain the Problem
Propose Your Solution
Explain Your Solution
In Process: Providing Support for Key Points
Consider Genre and Design
Frame Your Essay
Review and Improve Your Draft
Reassess Your Problem Definition
Review the Presentation of Your Solution
Check the Feasibility of Your Solution
Consider Objections and Alternative Solutions
Peer Review: Improve Your Problem-Solving Essay
Student Essay: Jennie Tillson, “Death, Taxes, and College Tuition”
Project Ideas
In Summary: Writing a Problem-Solving Essay
10 Writing to Convince or Persuade
Genres in Conversation: Argumentative Writing
What Is Writing to Convince or Persuade?
The Writer’s Role: Advocate
What Kinds of Documents Are Used to Convince or Persuade?
Argumentative Essays
Anu Partanen, What Americans Keep Ignoring about Finland’s School Success
Advertisements
Men Can Stop Rape, Where Do You Stand?
Point/Counterpoint Editorials
Alexandra Le Tellier, Judge Stops NYC Soda Ban, but Don’t Celebrate
Karin Klein, Soda’s a Problem, but Bloomberg Doesn’t Have the Solution
Speeches
Michelle Obama, Who Are You Going to Be?
Opinion Columns
Cyrus Habib, Show Us the Money (newspaper article)
Open Letters
SPARK, Our Letter to LEGO (Web site)
How Can I Write an Argumentative Essay?
In Process: An Argumentative Essay about Online Gaming
Find a Conversation and Listen In
Explore Disagreements
In Process: Generating Ideas about Conversations
Working Together: Try It Out Loud
Track Online Conversations
Ask Questions About Promising issues
In Process: Locating Sources
Build Your Argument
Define Your Overall Claim
Develop Reasons To Accept Your Overall Claim
Choose Evidence To Support Your Reasons
In Process: Choosing Evidence
Identify and Consider Opposing Claims
Working Together: Identify and Consider Opposing Claims
Ensure the Integrity of Your Argument
Prepare a Draft
Make an Argumentative Claim
Appeal to Your Readers
Address Counterarguments
Consider Genre and Design
Frame Your Argument
Review and Improve Your Draft
Consider Your Overall Claim
Review Your Reasons, Evidence, and Appeals
Examine Your Treatment of Counterarguments
Peer Review: Improve Your Argumentative Essay
Ensure the Integrity of Your Argument
Student Essay: Vince Reid, “The Changing Face of Online Gaming”
Project Ideas
In Summary: Writing an Argumentative Essay
Part 3
11 Beginning Your Search
How Should I Focus My Search for Sources?
Generate Potential Research Questions
Select and Refine Your Question
Reflect on Your Writing Situation
Refer to Shared Assumptions and Existing Conditions
Narrow Your Scope
Tech Tip: Conduct Preliminary Searches
How Can I Develop a Search Plan?
Identify Relevant Types of Sources
Consider the Scope of Your Conversation
Consider the Timeliness of Your Subject
Consider What You Need To Learn
Consider the Evidence You’ll Need
Identify Appropriate Search Tools and Research Methods
Review and Refine Your Plan
How Can I Keep Track of My Sources?
Manage Print Materials
Manage Digital Materials
Downloading
Copying and Pasting
Using E-Mail
Tech Tip: Taking Photos, Making Recordings, and Saving Notes
Saving Bookmarks and Favorites In Your Browser
Backing Up Your Files
How Can I Create a Bibliography?
List Sources in a Working Bibliography
Summarize Sources in an Annotated Bibliography
In Summary: Beginning Your Search
12 Locating Sources
How Can I Locate Sources Using Electronic Resources?
Generate Search Terms and Strategies
Identify Keywords and Phrases
Plan Basic Searches
Tech Tip: Plan Advanced Searches
Search Library Catalogs
Search Databases
Identify Relevant Databases
Search Within Database Fields
Search the Web
Use Web Search Engines
Browse Web Directories
Use Meta Search Sites
Use News Search Sites
Use Reference Sites
Use Government Search Sites and Directories
Tech Tip: Use E-Book Sites
Search Blogs
Search Social Media Sites
Search Media Sites
Use Image Search Sites and Directories
Use Audio Search Sites
Use Video Search Sites
Keep Track of Your Searches
How Can I Locate Sources Using Print Resources?
Discuss Your Search Plan with a Librarian
Visit the Library Stacks
Browse the Stacks
Check Out Relevant items
Tech Tip: Use Interlibrary Loan
Browse Periodicals
Check Reference Works
Bibliographies
Indexes
Biographies
Encyclopedias
Handbooks
Almanacs
Atlases
How Can I Gather Information Using Field Research?
Choose Your Methods
Interviews
Observations
Surveys
Correspondence
Attending Public Events
Viewing Or Listening To Broadcast Media
Enlist Help
Assess Your Information
In Summary: Locating Sources
13 Avoiding Plagiarism
What Is Plagiarism?
Unintentional Plagiarism
Intentional Plagiarism
Plagiarism in Group Projects
What Are Research Ethics?
Understand Common Knowledge
Ask Permission to Use a Source
How Can I Avoid Plagiarism?
Conduct a Knowledge Inventory
Take Notes Carefully
Attribute Ideas Appropriately
Identify Your Sources
Understand Why Writers Plagiarize
What Should I Do If I’m Accused of Plagiarism?
In Summary: Avoiding Plagiarism
Part 4
14 Developing a Thesis Statement
How Can I Choose a Main Point?
Review Your Notes
Consider Your Writing Situation
How Can I Draft My Thesis Statement?
Consider the Type of Document You Will Write
Identify Important Information, Ideas, and Arguments Related to Your Main Point
Draft Alternatives
Focus Your Thesis Statement
How Can I Support My Thesis Statement?
Choose Reasons to Accept Your Thesis Statement
Select Evidence to Support Your Reasons
In Summary: Developing a Thesis Statement
15 Organizing
How Can I Choose an Organizing Pattern?
Understand the Types of Organizing Patterns
Reflect on Your Writing Situation
How Can I Arrange My Argument?
Labeling
Grouping
Clustering
Mapping
How Can I Create an Outline?
Create an Informal Outline
Create a Formal Outline
In Summary: Organizing
16 Drafting and Designing
How Can I Use My Outline to Begin Drafting?
How Can I Draft an Effective Document?
Create Paragraphs That Focus on a Central Idea
Create Paragraphs That Use Appropriate Organizing Patterns
Integrate Information from Sources Effectively
Write Clearly and Concisely
Engage Your Readers
Use Details to Capture Your Readers’ Attention
Create Transitions within and between Paragraphs
How Can I Draft My Introduction?
Frame Your Introduction
Select an Introductory Strategy
State the Topic
Establish the Context
State Your thesis
Define a Problem
Make a Surprising Statement
Ask a Question
Tell a Story
Provide a Historical Account
Lead With a Quotation
Draw a Contrast
Provide a Map
How Can I Draft My Conclusion?
Reinforce Your Points
Select a Concluding Strategy
Offer Additional Analysis
Speculate About the Future
Close With a Quotation
Close With a Story
Close With a Question
Call Your Readers To Action
Link To Your Introduction
How Can I Help Readers Follow My Arguments?
Let Readers Know Where Your Document Is Taking Them
Give Readers a Map
Build on Readers’ Experiences
Keep Related Ideas Together
Keep the Flow of Your Document Moving Forward
Say Things Just Once
How Can I Design My Document?
Understand Design Principles
Design for a Purpose
Design for Your Readers
Design to Address Genre Conventions
Use Design Elements Effectively
Use Fonts, Line Spacing, and Alignment
Use Page Layout Elements
Use Color, Shading, Borders, and Rules
Use Illustrations
What Should I Consider as I Design an Academic Essay?
Consider How Design Elements Can Help You Achieve Your Writing Goals
Consider Reader Expectations
Consider Your Context
View an Essay
In Summary: Drafting and Designing
17 Working with Genres
How Can I Choose the Right Genre?
Analyze Your Assignment
Reflect on Your Purpose, Readers, and Context
Consider Your Writing Resources
How Can I Write an Article?
Consider Your Purpose and Role
Analyze Your Target Publication
Develop and Organize Your Argument
Collect and Work with Sources
Draft, Design, and Review Your Article
View an Article
How Can I Create a Multimodal Essay?
Build on Your Experiences Writing Academic Essays
Consider Your Writing Situation
Develop and Organize Your Argument
Collect and Work with Sources
Choose Among Media Sources
Place and Stage Media Sources
Import Or Link To Media Sources
Choose Composing Tools
Tech Tip: Compose Your Essay With a Multimedia Presentation Program
Develop a Consistent Design
Create Navigation Tools
View a Multimodal Essay
How Can I Create a Web Page?
Consider Your Purpose and Role
Consider Reader Expectations
Plan Your Page
Create Content
Choose Navigation Tools
Design Your Page
Ensure Your Page is Consistent With the Overall Design of the Site
Design Page Elements
Design Your Page
Create Your Page
Tech Tip: Create a Web Page With a Word-Processing Program
Put Your Page Online
View Web Pages
In Summary: Working with Genres
18 Presenting Your Work
How Can I Make an Oral Presentation?
Consider Your Purpose, Role, and Audience
Narrow Your Scope
Create a Bare-bones Outline
Think about Language
Prepare Speaker’s Notes
Engage with Your Audience
View Speaker’s Notes
How Can I Create a Multimedia Presentation?
Consider Your Context, Audience, Purpose, and Role
Develop Your “Talking Points”
Choose Composing Tools
Develop a Consistent Design
Organize Your Presentation
Practice and Revise Your Presentation
Give or Distribute Your Presentation
View a Presentation
How Can I Work on a Group Presentation?
Understand the Purposes of Working in a Group
Understand Potential Problems and Develop Solutions
Working Together: Develop Guidelines for Group Work
Establish Ground Rules
Working Together: Establish Ground Rules for a Group Project
Create a Plan
Working Together: Create a Plan for a Group Project
How Can I Develop a Portfolio?
Consider Your Writing Situation
Select Your Materials
Choose a Publishing Tool
Organize and Design Your Portfolio
Introduce and Reflect on Your Work
View Pages from a Portfolio
In Summary: Presenting Your Work
19 Using Sources Effectively
How Can I Use Sources to Accomplish My Purposes as a Writer?
Introduce a Point
Contrast Ideas
Provide Evidence
Align Yourself with an Authority
Define a Concept, Illustrate a Process, or Clarify a Statement
Set a Mood
Provide an Example
Amplify or Qualify a Point
How Can I Integrate Sources into My Draft?
Identify Your Sources
Use Attributions and In-Text Citations
Provide a Context
Quote Strategically
Use Partial, Complete, Or Block Quotations
Modify Quotations Appropriately
Punctuate Quotations Correctly
Paraphrase Information, Ideas, and Arguments
Ensure the Accuracy and Fairness of Each Paraphrase
Integrate Each Paraphrase into Your Document
Summarize Sources
Summarize an Entire Source
Summarize Specific Information and Ideas From a Source
Summarize a Group of Sources
Present Numerical Information
Use Images, Audio, and Video
How Can I Ensure I’ve Avoided Plagiarism?
Quote, Paraphrase, and Summarize Accurately and Appropriately
Distinguish between Your Ideas and Ideas in Your Sources
Check for Unattributed Sources in Your Document
How Should I Document My Sources?
Choose a Documentation System
Provide In-Text References and Publication Information
In Summary: Using Sources Effectively
20 Revising and Editing
What Should I Focus on When I Revise?
Consider Your Writing Situation
Consider Your Argument and Ideas
Consider Your Use, Integration, and Documentation of Sources
Consider the Structure and Organization of Your Document
Consider Genre and Design
What Strategies Can I Use to Revise?
Save Multiple Drafts
Highlight Your Main Point, Reasons, and Evidence
Challenge Your Assumptions
Put Yourself In the Place of Your Readers
Play Devil’s Advocate
Play the “So What?” Game
Scan, Outline, and Map Your Document
Ask for Feedback
What Should I Focus on When I Edit?
Focus on Accuracy
Focus on Economy
Focus on Consistency
Focus on Style
Focus on Spelling, Grammar, and Punctuation
What Strategies Can I Use to Edit?
Read Carefully
Mark and Search Your Document
Use Spelling, Grammar, and Style Tools with Caution
Ask for Feedback
In Summary: Revising and Editing
Part 5
21 Using MLA Style
How Do I Cite Sources within the Text of My Document?
How Do I Prepare the List of Works Cited?
Print Books
Sources in Print Journals, Magazines, and Newspapers
Print Reference Works
Field Sources
Media Sources
Electronic Sources
22 Using APA Style
How Do I Cite Sources within the Text of My Document?
How Do I Prepare the References List?
Print Books
Sources in Print Journals, Magazines, and Newspapers
Print Reference Works
Field Sources
Media Sources
Electronic Sources
Other Sources
Part 6
23 Style: Writing Confidently
Write Clear, Logical Sentences
Choose the Right Sentence Structures for Your Ideas
Put Your Main Ideas In Main Clauses
To Give Multiple Ideas Equal Weight, Use a Compound Sentence
To Emphasize one Idea Over Another, Use a Complex Sentence
Combine Coordination and Subordination In a Compound-Complex Sentence
Use Parallel Structures for Similar Elements
When You Write a Series, Make All the Elements In it Parallel
Compare Like With Like
Make Sure All the Elements In the Series Connect Properly To the Rest of the Sentence
Let Readers Know Where Your Sentence Is Going
Keep Related Ideas Together
Keep the Flow of the Sentence Moving Forward
Don’t Let Words and Phrases Dangle
Avoid Dangling Modifiers
Try To Avoid Dangling Prepositions
Choose Language That Will Earn You Respect
Match Your Style to Your Writing Situation
Choose the Right Level of Formality
Avoid Unnecessarily Technical Language
Use Language That’s Free of Bias and Stereotyping
Avoid Exaggeration
Use Only Words You Know
Choose Lively, Concise Phrasing
To Be Vivid, Be Specific
Give Every Word a Job to Do
Favor the Active Voice
Look for Alternatives to Forms of the Verb To Be
If You Want to Use Figures of Speech, Invent Your Own
Pay Attention to Relationships among Words
Avoid Using Too Many -tion, -ing, and -ly Endings
Make a Habit of Stating Things in an Affirmative Way
In Summary: Style: Writing Confidently
24 Grammar: Writing Skillfully
Make Verbs Work for You
Match the Number of a Verb to the Number of Its Subject
Watch Out For Words That Come Between the Subject and Verb
Treat Most Compound Subjects As Plural
Match the Number of the Verb To the Nearer Or Nearest of Alternative Subjects
Make the Subject and Verb Agree, Even When the Verb Comes First
Do Not Confuse the Subject With a Noun Complement
Use Singular Verbs With Singular Indefinite Pronouns
Use the Right Verb Forms With Collective Nouns
Watch Out For Nouns That Look Plural But Are Not
Use Verb Tense and Mood to Convey Timing and Possibility
Don’t Get Tripped Up By Irregular Verbs
Use Verbs in Special Moods in Special Cases
Write in Complete Sentences, Not Fragments
Watch Out for Subordinate Clauses Posing as Sentences
Watch Out for Verbals Posing as Verbs
Watch Out for Fragments That Begin with Prepositions
Watch Out for Fragments That Consist of an Example
Avoid Run-ons and Comma Splices
Use a Comma and a Coordinating Conjunction
Use a Semicolon
Break the Sentence in Two
Subordinate One of the Clauses
Use Pronouns to Help Readers
Match Subject Pronouns with Subjects, and Object Pronouns with Objects
Watch Out When Using Subject Or Object Pronouns Together Or With a Name
Use Who for Subjects and Whom for Objects
Use Reflexive Pronouns To Refer To the Subject of the Sentence Or Clause
Choose the Right Pronouns in Comparisons
Use a Subject Pronoun For a Subject Complement
Make Pronouns Agree with Their Antecedents
Watch Out For Indefinite Pronouns
Watch Out For Collective Nouns
Avoid Vague or Ambiguous Pronoun References
Watch Out For Pronouns Whose Antecedents Are Whole Clauses Or Sentences
Avoid Using the Same Pronoun When Referring To Different Things
Avoid Using a Pronoun When It Might Refer to More than One Thing
Use the Pronoun You Only to Refer to Your Readers
Use They Only to Refer to Particular People or Things
Use the Placeholder Pronoun It Sparingly
Use Adjectives and Adverbs Wisely
Use Adjectives to Modify Nouns and Pronouns
Use Adverbs to Modify Verbs, Adjectives, and Adverbs
Know When to Use Good, Well, Bad, and Badly
Use -est, Most, or Least Only When Comparing Three or More Things
Watch Out for Adverbs with Absolute Concepts
In Summary: Grammar: Writing Skillfully
25 Punctuation and Mechanics: Giving Your Readers Direction
Use Commas to Keep Your Sentences Organized and Readable
Use a Comma and a Coordinating Conjunction to Separate Two Main Clauses
Use Commas to Set Off Introductory Elements
Use Commas to Set Off Detours
Use Commas in Series
Use Commas to Set Off Most Quotations
Use Commas in Other Places Where Readers Expect Them
Use Periods, Question Marks, and Exclamation Points Correctly
End Most Sentences with Periods
Reserve Question Marks for Actual Questions
Use Exclamation Points Sparingly
Use Quotation Marks When You Borrow Words
Put Quotation Marks around Direct Quotations
Put Quotation Marks around New Terms and Words Used as Words
Put Quotation Marks around the Titles of Short Works
Place Quotation Marks Correctly with Other Punctuation
Use Apostrophes to Signal Contractions and Possessives
Use an Apostrophe in Contractions
Use Apostrophes to Show Possession
Distinguish among Possessives, Adjectives, and Attributive Nouns
Give Possessive Pronouns Special Treatment
Use Colons to Point to What Comes Next
Use Semicolons between Equivalent Elements
Use Other Punctuation Marks in Specific Situations
Use Hyphens Mainly to Help Readers Understand Relationships between Adjacent Words
Check a Dictionary
Use Hyphens To Make Compound Adjectives
Do Not Add Hyphens To Internet Addresses
Hyphenate Between Syllables At the End of a Line
Use Dashes for Breaks in Thought That Are Larger Than Commas Suggest
Use Parentheses for Explanatory and Other Minor Asides
Use Brackets inside Parentheses and Quotations
Use Ellipses to Show Omissions
Use a Slash When Quoting Poetry or Song Lyrics and Sparingly for Alternatives
Use Sentence Mechanics to Convey Information
Use Capitalization to Mark Beginnings
Capitalize Proper Names
Capitalize Titles That Immediately Precede a Person’s Name
Capitalize Adjectives Derived From Proper Names
Capitalize Most Words In the Titles of Works
Follow the Specialized Capitalization Style of Organizations and Brands
Use Italics for Titles of Substantial Works, for Foreign Words, and Sparingly for Emphasis
Use Abbreviations and Acronyms to Help, Not Frustrate, Readers
In Summary: Punctuation and Mechanics: Give Your Readers Direction