I-1

Page numbers in italics indicate figures.

A 0620-00 (black hole), 378

Abell 39 (planetary nebula), 99

absolute magnitude, 298–299

and apparent magnitude, 298

and determining distances, 423, 424

and H-R diagram, 303–304

absorption lines, 84, 85, 91

absorption line spectrum, 87–88

acceleration, 43

of universe, 444, 463–465

accretion

of inner planets, 104

and protostars, 323, 324

in solar system formation, 103, 104

accretion disks

beta (β) Lyrae system, 344

black holes, 377–381, 437

acetaldehyde, 472

acetic acid, 472

achromatic lens, 66

action and reaction, law of (Newton’s third law), 43–44

active galactic nuclei (AGN), 378, 430

active galaxies, 430–433, 436–437

active optics, 70

active Sun, 273–282

actuators, 70

Adams, John Couch, 45, 226

adaptive optics, 70–71

Adrastea (moon), 206, 207

Advanced Composition Explorer, satellite, 361

aerogel, 249

afterglows (of gamma-ray bursts), 381

albedo, 147

of planets, 128

Aldebaran (red giant), 301, 304

Aldrin, Buzz, 148

Algol (star), 343

ALH84001 (meteorite), 182, 471

Allende meteorite, 262, 473

Alnitak, 319, 321

Alpha Centauri B (star), 118

alpha particles, 89, 336

Alpher, Ralph, 446

Altair (star), 4

altazimuth coordinate system, 6

altitude, 6

Alvan Clark and Sons, 63

Alvarez, Luis, 263

Alvarez, Walter, 263

Amalthea (moon), 206, 207

amino acids

in carbonaceous chondrites, 261–262

in comets, 249

ammonia, on Jupiter, 193, 195

ammonia ice, 246

Amor asteroids, 244

Andromeda Galaxy (M31), 61, 392, 404, 416, 433–434

and Milky Way, 412, 414

supernova in, 359

angle of incidence, 58

angle of reflection, 58

angstrom (Å), 52

angular diameter, 7

angular momentum, 43–44, 45

conservation of, 102

of neutron stars, 364

see also spin

angular resolution, 60–62

angular size, 7

annihilation

of most of matter and antimatter in early universe, 452–453

particles and antiparticles, 453

annular eclipse, 21

in 2001–2020, 22

anorthosite, 146–147

Antares (star), 99, 304

anthropomorphism, 318

antimatter, in early universe, 452–453

antimuons, 288

antineutrinos, 452

antiparticles, 451, 452, 453

and annihilation of particles, 453

antiquarks, 452

antitau particles, 288

Antlia (dwarf galaxy), 415

Apennine Mountains, 263

aphelion, of planet orbit, 38, 39

Aphrodite Terra (Venus), 166, 167

Apollo (asteroid), 239

Apollo 11, 145, 146, 148, 154

Apollo 12, 145

Apollo 13, 145

Apollo 14, 145, 154

Apollo 15, 144, 147, 154

Apollo 16, 147, 148

Apollo 17, 145, 146

Apollo asteroids, 244

Apollo missions, 77, 145–146, 147, 148, 154

apparent binaries, see optical doubles

apparent magnitude, 297–298

and absolute magnitude, 298

determining distances with, 423, 424

Aquarius (the Water Bearer), 16, 351, 448

Aquila (the Eagle), 4

Arabia Terrae (Mars), 168, 171

arc angle, 7

arcminutes (arcmin), 7

arcseconds (arcsec), 7

Arcturus (star), 4, 304

Arecibo Observatory, 477, 479

Arecibo Observatory radio telescope, 73

Ares Vallis (Mars), 176, 181–182

argon, 130, 175, 288

Argyre Planitia (Mars), 177

Aries (the Ram), 16

A ring, 210, 215

Aristarchus of Samos, 31, 32

Aristillus crater (Moon), 142

Armstrong, Neil, 145, 148

asterisms, 2–3

asteroid 2004 FU162, 244

asteroid 87 Sylvia, 242

asteroid belt, 103, 107, 114, 239, 240

asteroids orbiting outside, 244–246

Jupiter’s gravity and gaps in, 241–244

asteroid collisions, 241, 242–243

asteroid impacts

on Earth, 263–264

on Jupiter, 199

on Mercury, 157

asteroid P/2013 P5, 243

asteroid P/2013 R3, 242

asteroids, 24, 107, 108, 234, 238–246, 259

outside asteroid belt, 244–246

Earth-crossing, 244

families of, 243

iron meteorites, 260

outside solar system, 114

and stony meteorites, 261

Tunguska event, 257

see also dwarf planets; meteoroids

asteroid-satellite systems, 242

astrobiology, 469–480

astrometric method for detecting exoplanets, 116

astronomical distances, 23, 294–296

units of, 40

astronomical measurement, 128

astronomical unit (AU), 39, 40

astronomy, nonoptical, 71–79

astrophotography, 239

asymptotic giant branch (AGB) stars, 349

atomic number, 89

atoms, 88–90

neutral, 90, 455

A type stars, 303

Auriga (the Charioteer), 4

auroras, 140

from coronal mass ejection, 282

on Ganymede, 205

on Jupiter, 197, 198, 199

on Saturn, 207, 208

Australia, asteroid impact in, 264

autumnal equinox, 6, 11, 12

average density

of matter in early universe, 456

of planets, 127, 128

azimuth, 6

Baade, Walter, 362, 426

Babcock, Horace, 278

Balmer, Johann, 91

Balmer absorption lines, 91, 302–303

I-2

Balmer series, 91

Baptistinas (asteroids), 263

Barnard 86 (nebula), 320

Barnard’s star, 92

proper motion of, 93

barred spiral galaxies, 394–395, 408–409, 411, 412

Barringer Crater, see Meteor Crater

barycenter, of Earth–Moon, 152

basalt, 146, 147, 165

beliefs, theories and, 30

Bell, Jocelyn, 362

belt asteroids, 239

belts and zones

on Jupiter, 193, 196

on Neptune, 224, 225

on outer planets, 228, 229

on Saturn, 207–208, 209

on Uranus, 220

beryllium, 336

Bessel, Friedrich Wilhelm, 294, 352

beta (β) Lyrae system, 343

beta (β) Persei, see Algol (star)

Beta Pictoris (star), 114, 115

Betelgeuse (supergiant), 301, 304, 355

Biermann, Ludwig, 250, 251

Big Bang, 98, 444, 446–449, 455, 458

Big Dipper, 2–3, 7

as pointer star, 3

binary head-tail source, 432

binary neutron stars, 367–369

binary pulsars, 367, 374

binary stars

detached, 342, 343

eclipsing, 309–310, 343

orbital motion of, 311–312

orbits of, 373

overcontact, 342, 343, 344

and stellar masses, 307–310

binary star systems, 100, 308, 353

and black holes, 377–378, 380–381

center of mass of, 309

close, 310

mass transfer in, 340–344

spectral-line motion in, 312

stellar remnant black holes in, 377–378

see also close binary systems; semidetached binary systems; spectroscopic binaries; visual binaries

bipolar planetary nebula, 351, 352

birth line, 325

blackbodies, 80–81

blackbody curves, 80, 81, 82

and stars, 300

blackbody radiation, 79–83

blackbody spectrum, 85, 87

black hole collisions, 382

black holes, 24, 369, 373–381, 437

characteristics of, 374

effect of on time, 377

evaporation of, 383

evidence for, 377–381

gases near, 435

and gas jets, 380–381

gravitational tidal force of, 383

infalling matter, 376

matter in, 373

tidal force of, 376

types of, 375

see also stellar black holes; supermassive black holes

blazars, 432

BL Lacertae (BL Lac) objects, 432, 433, 437

central engine, 437

blueshift, 54

Bohr, Niels, 302

Bok, Bart, 322

Bok globules, 322

protostar in, 323

bolide, 256–257

Boltzmann, Ludwig, 82, 83

see also Stefan-Boltzmann law

Bondi, Herman, 447

BOOMERANG, 446, 447

Boötes (the Herdsman), 4, 382, 422

boron, and existence of life, 471

Brahe, Tycho, 36, 37, 294, 347, 359

Braille (asteroid), 256

Braille, Louis, 256

B ring, 210–211

Brooks, Grace, 302

brown dwarfs, 325

brown ovals, 193

B stars, 303, 327, 328, 398, 406, 459

see also OB associations

buckyballs, 472–473

Bunsen burner, 84

Bunsen, Robert, 84–85

Burns Cliff (Mars), 179

Burst and Transient Source Experiment (BATSE), 381

butterfly diagram, of sunspots, 276

Caesar, Julius, 13–14

caldera, 174

Callisto (moon), 181, 205, 206, 474

calorimeters, 77

Caloris Basin (Mercury), 155–157, 158

Camelopardus (the Giraffe), 92

Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope (CFHT), 67

Canes Venatici constellation, 411

Canis Major (the Large Dog), 4

Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy, 400, 415

Canis Minor (the Smaller Dog), 4

Cannon, Annie Jump, 302

carbon

creation from beryllium, 336

and existence of life, 471, 472–473

helium fusion and, 98

carbonaceous chondrites, 472, 473

carbon dioxide

on Earth, 130, 131, 132–133

on Mars, 175

on Venus, 163, 164

carbon dioxide ice (dry ice), 181, 246

carbon fusion, 354, 355, 356

carbon monoxide

frozen, 237

interstellar gas, 321

on Pluto, 237

Carina constellation, 334

Carpenter, Alta, 302

Cartwheel Galaxy, 416

Cassegrain, Laurent, 58

Cassegrain focus, 53, 58, 59, 86

Cassegrain mirrors, 66

Cassini, Giovanni, 194, 210

Cassini division, 210–212

Cassini spacecraft, 194, 196, 198, 200

Enceladus, 219

Rhea, 218

Saturn, 208, 209

Saturn’s rings, 211, 212, 213, 214

Titan, 217, 218

Cassiopeia A (Cas A), 357, 358, 359, 366, 426

Castalia (asteroid), 241

Castelli, Benedetto, 274

cause-and-effect link, sunspots and temperatures, 279

celestial equator, 5, 6, 10, 11, 16

celestial sphere, 5–6

centaur objects, 246

Centaurus constellation, 294, 395, 431

Centaurus X–3, 368

center of mass, 308–309

central bulge

of barred spirals, 408–409

in Milky Way, 396

in spiral galaxies, 403–405

central peaks (in craters), 142

Cepheid variable stars, 391–394, 424

Cerenkov, Pavel A., 289

Cerenkov flashes, 360

Cerenkov radiation, 288–289

Ceres (asteroid), 107

Ceres (dwarf planet), 108, 234, 237, 239, 240

CERN particle accelerator, 449

cesium, 85

Challenger space shuttle, 27

Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan, 77, 353

Chandrasekhar limit, 353–354

Chandra X-ray Observatory, 77, 79

black holes, 380

Coma cluster, 416

galactic nucleus, 398

galaxy 3C 294, 458

intergalactic gas, 416, 420

NGC 6240, 419

novae, 353

supermassive black holes, 436

X-ray emission, 431

Chandrayaan–1, 148

Chaney, Dave, 123

charge-coupled devices (CCDs), 67–68, 75, 86, 300

infrared-detecting, 75

Charon (moon), 235–237

Chelyabinsk, Russia, bolide over, 256, 257

Cherenkov radiation, 78

Chicxulub Crater, Mexico, 263, 264

Chihuahua, Mexico, Allende meteorite, 262

chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 57, 132

chocolate chip cake analogy for expanding universe, 425

chondrites, 261, 472

chondrules, 261, 262

Christy, James, 236

chromatic aberration, 64, 65

chromosphere, 269–270, 279–280

circumpolar stars, 8

I-3

circumstellar shell, 355

classical Kuiper belt objects, 246, 247

Clementine spacecraft, 148, 149

close binary systems, 310

white dwarfs in, 353–354

closed universe, 462

clusters (of galaxies), 412–421

and dark matter, 460

distribution of, 414

motion of, 422

redshifts and blueshifts of, 464

cobalt

creation of, 357

nickel decay to, 354

collimators, 78

collision-ejection theory of Moon formation, 150, 151

colors

of light, 50, 51

and temperatures, 79–83

wavelengths of, 51, 52, 53

coma (of a comet), 249, 251–252

Coma Berenices constellation, 391, 415

Coma clusters (of galaxies), 415, 420

Comet 2006 SQ372, 254

Comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko, 252, 253

Comet Brooks, 252

comet dust, 249, 254

Comet Hale-Bopp, 233, 247, 250, 254–255

Comet Halley, 45, 248, 254, 472

Comet Holmes, 249

Comet Hyakutake, 247

Comet Ikeya-Seki, 252

comet impacts, 252–253

on Jupiter, 198–199

Comet LINEAR (Lincoln Near Earth Asteroid program), 246, 254

Comet Mrkos B, 251

comet nuclei, 108, 115, 247–248

and comet tails, 250

formation of solar system, 108

comets, 24, 105, 108, 234, 239, 246–256

breakup of, 254

formation of, 246

and formation of life, 472

Kuiper belt, 105, 106

mass loss, 254–255

orbits and tails of, 250

outside solar system, 114

structure of, 251

sungrazing, 255, 256

Comet Schwassmann-Wachmann 3, 254, 255

Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9, 198, 199, 254

comet tails, 249–252

Comet Tempel 1, 252, 253, 254

Comet Temple-Tuttle, 258

Comet Toit-Neujmin-Delporte, 254

Comet West, 24, 250

Comet Wild 2, 248–249, 472

compact disks (CDs), 86

comparative planetology, 126–129

of the inner planets, 184–185

comparison spectrum, 86

complex molecules, and existence of life requirements, 471–472

compression waves, 407

Compton, Arthur Holly, 77

Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory, 77, 381

computer-aided analysis, 100, 102

concave lenses, 63

conceptual framework, 32

Cone Nebula, 99, 100, 329

configuration, 33–35

confinement period, 452

conic sections, 45

conjunction of planets, 35

conservation of angular momentum, 43–44, 102

constellations, 3–5

circumpolar, 8

cycle of, 9–10

constructive interference, 52

contact binaries, 342, 343

continental drift, 134

continuous line spectrum, 87, 88

continuum, 428

convection

on Earth, 137, 138

solar granulation and, 269, 270

on Sun, 283, 286

convection current, 137, 138

convective zone (Sun), 283, 286

convergent boundaries, 134–135

convex lenses, 63

Copernicus, Nicolaus, 32–36

Cordelia (moon), 222

core bounce, 356

core collapse, 356

core helium fusion, 333, 335

globular cluster stars, 339

intermediate-mass stars, 349

core hydrogen fusion, 333–334, 348

Corona Borealis, 422

coronagraph, 272

coronal holes, 280

coronal loops, 278

coronal mass ejection, 140, 281–282

coronal spectrum, 271

Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE), 74, 446, 447

Milky Way, 397

temperature differences, 456

cosmic censorship, 377

cosmic light horizon, 452

cosmic microwave background, 446–448, 456, 462

and curvature of space, 462

motion through, 448

sound waves in, 456

temperature differences in, 456, 457

cosmic microwave background photons, 463

cosmic microwave background radiation, 448, 455

cosmic neutrino background, 447

cosmic neutrinos, 447

cosmic rays, 273, 361

cosmic ray shower, 361

cosmological constant, 444, 464–465

cosmological redshift, 445, 446

cosmology, 30, 443–468

defined, 444

coudé focus, 59, 86

Crab Nebula, 99, 364, 365

Crab pulsar, 364, 365

craters, 107–108

on Earth, 143, 257

on Mars, 171, 173, 177

on Mercury, 155–158, 159

on Moon, 141–143, 144, 145

C ring, 211

cryovolcanoes, 228

Curie, Marie, 88

Curiosity rover, 169, 177–179, 182, 183

Curtis, Heber D., 391, 434

Cushman, Florence, 302

CW Leonis (star), 255

Cygnus (the Swan), 4, 5, 323

Cygnus (planetary nebula), 351

Cygnus A (Cyg A, 3C 405), 426, 427, 432

Cygnus Loop, 322, 358

Cygnus X-1 system, 378

Dactyl (asteroid), 107, 242

Daphnis (moon), 212

dark ages, 456, 458

dark energy, 461, 463–465

dark matter, 402–403, 419–421, 456, 461

early universe, 463

formation of, 452

galaxy structures and, 412

Milky Way, 396

dark matter halos, 419, 420

dark nebulae, 319, 321, 323

Barnard, 320

dark side of the Moon, 16–17

Darwin, Sir George, 154

Davis Raymond, 288

day, on Mercury, 160, 161

day-night cycle, 8–10

debris, in solar system, 105–108

declination (Dec.), 5, 6

decoupling, 454–455

Deep Impact spacecraft, 252, 253

deferent, 32, 33

degenerate electrons, 335

degenerate matter, 353

Deimos (moon), 183–184

Dells (Mars), 179

Delphinus (the Dolphin), 4

Delta Aquarids meteor shower, 258

delta (δ) Cephei stars, see Type I Cepheid variables

Deneb (star), 4

dense cores, 100

Bok globules, 322

density, 99

and evolution of universe, 454

of planets, 127, 128

De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres), 35–36

De stella nova (On the New Star), 36

destructive interference, 52

detached binaries, 342, 343

deuterium, 77

and neutrino detectors, 288

Dicke, Robert, 446

differential rotation

Jupiter, 196

Jupiter’s clouds, 194

I-4

Milky Way, 401, 406

Saturn, 207–208

Sun, 275, 277, 278

diffraction grating, 85–87

diffraction gratings, 86, 87

dinosaur extinction, 263–264

Dione (moon), 216

Dirac, Paul a.m., 456

direct imaging method of detecting exoplanets, 116–117

direct motion, of planets, 30

distance–magnitude relationship, 299, 338, 423, 424

distance-measuring techniques, 423, 424

distance-velocity graph, 422, 423

diurnal motion, 8

divergent boundaries, 134–135

Doppler, Christian, 54

Doppler effect, 54

and clusters of galaxies, 445

cosmic microwave background, 448

Doppler shift, 54

and discovery of exoplanets, 116

interstellar reddening and, 320

radial velocity and, 92

solar granules and, 269

special relativity, 370

in spectral lines, 311

speeds of stars and, 93

Dorado (the Goldfish), 430

double-line spectroscopic binary, 311, 312

double pulsar, 367

double-radio sources, 431, 432, 436, 437

double star, 307, 308

Draco (the Dragon), 14

Drake, Frank, 123, 471, 477

Drake equation, 477–478

dry ice (carbon dioxide ice), 246

on Mars, 181

dust devils, on Mars, 176–177

dust tail (of a comet), 251–252

DVDs, 86

dwarf elliptical galaxies, 410, 414

dwarf planets, 108, 234–238

in outer solar system, 246

see also Ceres (dwarf planet); Eris (dwarf planet); Haumea (dwarf planet); Make-make (dwarf planet); Pluto

dynamo theory (of Earth’s magnetic field), 138

Dysnomia (moon), 237, 238

E0 to E7 galaxies, 410

Eagle Nebula, 327

early type galaxies, 409

Earth, 125, 129–141

albedo of, 128

asteroid impacts, 263–264

atmosphere, 68–71, 130–133, 185, 473

atmospheric temperature, 131

average density of, 128

axis of rotation, 10, 11, 14–16, 150, 152

core of, 135–137

craters on, 143, 257

crust, 133–135, 137

ecliptic, 6–7, 9, 10, 11

and electromagnetic radiation, 56, 57

formation of, 104–105

greenhouse effect, 130

infalling space debris, 259, 260

infrared radiation, 132

interior of, 135–137, 159, 185

iridium in, 260

lunar eclipses, 18–20

magnetic field of, 137–141, 185, 223

magnetosphere, 139

mantle of, 135, 136–137

mass of, 127, 185

oceans, 130

orbital data, 126

pieces of the Moon and Mars on, 259

planetesimal impact on, 105

plant life on, 130

precession and axis of rotation, 14–16

revolution of, 9–10, 13

rotation of, 8, 13–14, 185

seasons on, 10–16

shadow of, 18, 19

size of, 126, 127, 185

surface of, 185

synodic and sidereal periods, 35

temperatures, 136, 137

vital statistics, 129

water on, 287

weather, 131, 132–133

see also Moon

Earth-centered cosmology, see geocentric cosmology

Earth-crossing asteroids, 244

earthly cycles, 8–10

Earth–Moon distance, 21

Earth–Moon system, 152–153

earthquakes, 134, 137

Earth–Sun distance, 11, 23, 126

eclipse, 18–22

eclipsing binaries, 311, 343

light curves of, 309–310

ecliptic, 6–7, 9, 10

line of nodes and, 18–19

Eddington, Arthur, 283

Einstein, Albert, 282

cosmological constant of, 444, 464

on expanding universe, 461

general relativity theory, 30, 117, 367, 371–374

on light, 54–55, 83

relativity theories, 369–374

special relativity theory, 369–371

Einstein cross, 437, 438

Einstein Observatory

NGC 5128, 431

Einstein ring, 437

ejecta blanket, 142

electric charge, of electrons and protons, 89

electromagnetic force, 89

electromagnetic radiation, 50, 52, 53

intensity of, 55

properties of, 83

types of, 55–57

as waves, 52

see also X rays; gamma rays; infrared radiation; radio waves; ultraviolet (UV) radiation; visible light

electromagnetic spectrum, 55, 56, 78, 80

electromagnetism, 88

unification of with other forces, 449, 450

electron degeneracy pressure, 335

in high-mass stars, 356

in intermediate-mass stars, 351

electron neutrinos, 288

electrons, 88–92

degenerate, 335

early universe, 452, 453

excited state of, 90–91

formation of, 451

orbits of, 89, 90

electron spin, 394

electroweak force, 449, 451

elementary particles, in early universe, 452–453

elements

defined, 84

identifying with spectral analysis, 84–88

periodic table of, 85, 86

stars’ transformation of matter from lighter to heavier, 98

ellipse, 37–38

elliptical galaxies, 409–411, 412

early universe, 459–460

spectra of, 422

elongation (of a planet), 33–35, 38

E = mc², 282, 370, 383, 453

emission lines, 84, 85

emission line spectrum, 87

emission nebulae, 319, 321, 327, 395

Enceladus (moon), 219–220

water in, 110

Encke, Johann Franz, 212

Encke division, 212

energy, creation of matter from, 453

epicycle, 32–33

Epimetheus (moon), 213

EPOXI spacecraft, 248

Epsilon (ε) Eridani, 114, 471

equations of nuclear fusion, 332

equations of stellar structure, 325

equatorial bulge, 14, 15

equinoxes

precession of, 16

and seasons, 10–11, 12

era of recombination, 455

ergoregions, 375, 376

E ring, 220

Eris (dwarf planet), 108, 234, 237, 238

Eros (asteroid), 24, 245

Eta Aquarids meteor shower, 258

ethane, on Titan, 218

ethyl alcohol, 472

Eugenia, 242

Eurasian plate, 134

Europa (moon), 181, 202–204, 474

water in, 110

Europa torus, 197, 207

European Space Agency, 77, 252, 296

evening star, 33

Venus as, 162

event horizon, 374, 376–377, 383

evolutionary tracks (of stars), 325

excited state, 90–91

exoplanets, 113–124, 471, 474, 478

classifications, 119

methods of detecting, 114–118

number of, 122

orbits, 120

search for life on, 123

I-5

separations between their stars and, 121

sizes, masses, and compositions, 118

experiments, 29

Explorer 42 satellite, see Uhuru satellite

extrasolar planets, see exoplanets

extraterrestrial biology, 472

extraterrestrial-generated radio signals, search for, 123

Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer (EUVE), 77

eyepiece lenses, 58, 62, 63, 64

Eyjafjallajökull volcano (Iceland), lightning generated by, 164

faint young sun paradox, 287

fall (autumn), 11

falls (meteorite impacts), 262

false-color techniques, 74

false vacuum, 451

far side of the Moon, 16–17, 145, 149, 151–153, 156

Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer (FUSE), 77

Fermi, Enrico, 288

Fermi Large Area Telescope, 77

filaments

Milky Way, 398

of solar corona, 279, 280, 281

finds (meteorites), 262

fireballs, 256–257

first quarter Moon, 16, 17

Fisher, Richard, 424

Fleming, Williamina, 302

flocculent spiral galaxies, 404, 405, 406–407

focal length, 58, 59, 62, 63, 64

focal plane, 58, 64

focal point, 58, 59

focus (plural foci), of ellipse, 37

Fomalhaut (star), 115, 117

Fomalhaut b, 116–117, 120

force, 43

force law (Newton’s second law), 43

formaldehyde, 472

forsterite, 249

4U 1543-47 (black hole), 378

frame of reference, 36

Fraunhofer, Joseph von, 84, 85

free-floating planets, 120

frequency, 54–55

of photon, 54

Friedmann, Alexandre, 461

F ring, 212, 213, 214

From the Earth to the Moon (Verne), 141

frost line, see snow line

F type stars, 303

fullerenes, 263

full Moon, 16, 17, 18

apparent magnitude, 297

fusion, 98–99

see also core helium fusion; core hydrogen fusion; helium fusion; helium shell fusion; hydrogen fusion; hydrogen shell fusion; neon fusion; nuclear fusion; oxygen fusion; silicon fusion; thermonuclear fusion

fusion crust, of meteorites, 260

galactic cannibalism, 400, 418, 419

galactic cosmic rays, 273

galactic disk, 402

of Milky Way, 393–397, 399–400

Galactic Evolution Explorer (GALEX), 77

galactic habitable zone, 475

galactic mergers, 418

galactic nucleus (Milky Way), 392, 393, 396, 397–399, 426

galaxies, 24, 391

active, 430–433, 436–437

clusters of, 412–421

colliding, 418

distances to and redshifts, 422–425

E0 to E7, 410

early type, 409

early universe, 459–460

formation of, 455–459, 464

Hubble classification of, 403

Hubble tuning fork diagram of, 411–412

interacting, 418

merging, 418, 419

properties of, 412

with rings, 416

superclusters of, 412–413

types of, 403–412

see also elliptical galaxies; giant elliptical galaxies; grand-design spiral galaxies; irregular galaxies; lenticular galaxies; peculiar galaxies; spiral galaxies

galaxy collisions, 412, 416–419, 460

Galilean moons, 41, 42, 199–205

vital statistics, 200

Galilei, Galileo, 41–42, 199, 274, 275

Galileo Regio (Ganymede), 204

Galileo spacecraft

and Callisto, 205

destruction of, 204

and Europa, 202, 203–204

and Io, 202

and Jupiter, 195, 197, 198, 200, 201

Galle, Johann, 45, 226

Galle crater (Mars), 173

gamma-ray bursts, 381–384

gamma-ray photons, and photodisintegration, 356

gamma rays, 55, 56, 77, 78, 80

early universe, 446, 453

and giant stars, 336

positron-electron collisions, 399

and Sun, 110, 282, 283, 284, 285, 287

gamma-ray telescopes, 77–78

Gamow, George, 446

Ganymede (moon), 181, 204–205, 474

size of, 126

water in, 110

gas giants, 104, 126, 127, 128, 195

Gaspra (asteroid), 107

gas tail (of a comet), 251–252

Gemini (the Twins), 4

Geminids meteor shower, 258

general relativity, equations of, 375–376

general relativity, theory of, 367, 371–374, 420, 454

black holes and, 374, 376

expanding universe and, 444, 461

gravitational lensing and, 437

gravitational redshift and, 376

Genesis spacecraft, 250, 273

geocentric cosmology, 30–31, 32–33

geodesics, 372

giant branch, 349

giant elliptical galaxies, 409, 410, 412, 418

giant molecular clouds, 319, 321–323, 395

H II regions, 328

giant phase (of stars), 333–334, 339

giant planets

formation of, 103–104

see also outer planets

giant stars, 304, 305

evolution of, 335–336

and helium flash, 335

mass loss of, 334

as variables, 337

Gill, Edith, 302

Gill, Mabel, 302

Giotto spacecraft, 248, 472

Gliese 229A, 325

Gliese 229B, 325

Gliese 581, 120

Gliese 581 b, c, and e, 120

Gliese 581d, 471

Gliese 876, 119

Gliese 876d, 119

glitch (of pulsars), 366–367

Global Positioning System (GPS), 30

global warming, 11, 132–133

globular clusters, 118, 338–340

black holes in, 379

formation of, 416

Milky Way, 393, 399, 400, 401

glucose, 471

glycine, 472

Gold, Thomas, 447

goldilocks zone, 122

Gondwana, 135

gossamer rings, Jupiter’s moons, 207

graben, 148, 149

grand-design spiral galaxies, 404, 405, 406–407, 408

Grand Unified Theories (GUTs), 449, 450

Gran Telescopio Canarias, 71

granulation, 269, 270

granules, in photosphere, 269, 270

grating spectrograph, 86

gravitation, 14, 15, 27, 89, 371

at all scales, 47

inverse square law for, 44

and other physical forces, 449, 450

solar system formation and, 99–100

gravitation, Newton’s law of universal, 42, 44–46, 372

gravitational attraction, and general relativity, 371

gravitational lensing, 420, 421

of quasars, 437–438

gravitational microlensing, 117, 118, 119

gravitational radiation, 374

gravitational redshift, 372–373, 376

gravitational wave detectors, 374

gravitational waves, 374

gravity, see gravitation

gravity, repulsive, 464

Great Attractor, 448

Great Dark Spot (Neptune), 226

Great Dying, 263, 264

greatest eastern and greatest western elongations, 33

I-6

Great Nebula of Orion, see Orion Nebula

Great Observatories, NASA, 70, 75, 76, 77

see also Chandra X-ray Observatory; Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory; Hubble Space Telescope; Spitzer Space Telescope

Great Red Spot (Jupiter), 193–194, 195

Greek astronomers, ancient, 30, 32

star classification, 296

greenhouse effect, 287

on Earth, 130, 132–133

on Venus, 164–165

Gregorian calendar, 14

Gregory XIII, Pope, 14

G ring, 214

GRO J042+32, 378

GRO J1655–40, 378

ground state, of electrons, 90

GS 1124-T68 (black hole), 378

GS 2000+25 (black hole), 378

G type stars, 303

Gulf of Suez, 134

gullies, Martian, 180

Gum Nebula, 358, 365

H 1705-250 (black hole), 378

habitable zone, 122, 474, 475

Hadley’s rille (Moon), 144

Hale, George Ellery, 276, 278

Hall, Asaph, 184

Halley, Edmond, 45

halo field stars, 399

halo system, Milky Way, 396, 399–400

Harvard Observatory, 302

Harwood, Margaret, 302

Haumea (dwarf planet), 108, 234, 237

Hawking, Stephen, 379–380, 383

Hawking process, 383

Hawking radiation, 383

Hayabusa space probe, 245

H_α (H alpha) Balmer line, 91

HD 148937, 355

HD 149026, 119

HD 171978 (binary), 312

HD 209458, 119

HD 209458b, 119

HD 82943, 120

HD85512b (planet), 471

HDE 26868 (star), 377

head-tail sources, 432

Heat Shield Rock, 179

heliocentric cosmology, 31–36, 41–42

helioseismology, 277–278, 282

heliosphere, 272–273

helium, 85

Cepheids, 337

in early universe, 454

on Earth, 130

hydrogen fusion in Sun creating, 283, 285, 287

interstellar medium, 319

on Jupiter, 194, 195, 196

in red dwarfs, 332–333

on Saturn, 210

in solar system formation, 98–99, 100, 103

helium flash, 335, 348, 349

helium fusion, 98, 334–335, 348, 349, 356

giant stars, 335

neutron stars, 369

see also core helium fusion

helium nuclei, 336

helium rain, 210

helium shell flash, 350

helium shell fusion, 348, 349

Helix Nebula (NGC 7293), 351

Hellas Planitia (Mars), 171

Helmholtz, Hermann von, 198

hematite blueberries, 177, 179

Henry Draper Catalogue, 119, 312

Herbig-Haro objects, 325, 326

Hercules cluster of galaxies, 412, 413, 416

Hercules X–1, 368

Herschel, William, 45, 55, 175, 226, 237, 307, 350, 392, 393

hertz, 54–55

Hertz, Heinrich, 54, 55

Hertzsprung, Ejnar, 303–304

Hertzsprung-Russell (H-R) diagrams, 303–305

absolute magnitude, 303–304

giant branch, 348

globular cluster, 339

and luminosity classes, 306

Pleiades, 320

plotting star clusters on, 328–330

pre–main-sequence stars, 325

structure of, 340–341

white dwarfs, 352

zero-age main sequence (ZAMS), 330

H’iaka (moon), 237

Higgs, Peter, 29

Higgs boson, 29

High-Energy Transient Explorer, 382

H II regions, 326–328

barred spiral galaxies, 395

Himalayas, 134, 136

Hinode satellite, 270, 281

HIP 77900 b (exoplanet), 120

Hipparchus, 16, 296

Hipparcos satellite (High Precision Parallax Collecting Satellite), 296, 339

Hirayama, Kiyotsugu, 243

Homestake neutrino detector, 288

homogeneity, 449, 451–452

Hooke, Robert, 28–29, 194

horizon, 2

horizon problem, see isotropy problem

horizontal branch stars, 339, 349

Horologium constellation, 417

Horsehead Nebula, 321

hot spots

cosmic microwave background, 462

on Jupiter, 195

X-ray sources, 368

hot-spot volcanism, 174

Hourglass Nebula, 351, 352

Hoyle, Sir Fred, 447

H_α (H alpha) photons, 91

Huang, Su-Shu, 344

Hubble, Edwin, 391–392, 409, 410

on expanding universe, 445

on galaxy motion, 422

Hubble classification of galaxies, 403

Hubble constant, 423, 424, 428, 445–446

Hubble Deep Field images

elliptical galaxies, 460

Hubble flow, 422, 424, 444, 452

Hubble law, 423, 425, 428

Hubble Space Telescope, 69, 70, 71, 116, 119, 297

black holes, 378

colors of stars, 300

dark matter distribution, 460

discovering asteroids, 240

distant galaxies, 425–426

galaxy interactions, 412

isolated stars, 418

M32 and M87, 434

Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer, 75–76

Neptune, 226

NGC 4261, 435

novae, 353

Pluto and its moons, 236

protogalaxies, 458

radio lobes, 427

Saturn, 207

Saturn’s rings, 213

SN 1997ff, 463

Uranus, 220, 222

Hubble tuning fork diagram, 411–412

Hulse, Russell, 374

Humason, Milton, 422

Huygens, Christiaan, 50, 169, 171, 215

Huygens probe, 217, 218

hybrid gamma-ray burst, 381

Hydra (moon), 236

Hydra constellation, 117, 422

hydrocarbons, on Titan, 216, 218

hydrogen

atomic structure of, 90

dark ages of universe, 456

early universe, 454

on Earth, 130

emission spectrum of, 87

energy level diagram of, 90

interstellar medium, 319

ionized, 90

on Jupiter, 194, 195, 196

in red dwarfs, 332

on Saturn, 207

in solar system formation, 98–99, 100, 103

spectrum of, 87

in star atmospheres, 301

hydrogen, interstellar, 394

hydrogen, neutral, 90

hydrogen atom, spin flipping, 394

hydrogen burning, see hydrogen fusion

hydrogen cyanide, on Titan, 216

hydrogen envelope, 249, 250

hydrogen fusion, 98, 283, 284–285, 287, 356

neutron stars, 369

pre–main-sequence star, 324–325

in Sun’s development, 110

see also core hydrogen fusion

hydrogen isotopes, 90

hydrogen molecules, in interstellar medium, 321

hydrogen peroxide, on Mars, 183

hydrogen shell fusion, 333, 348, 349

globular cluster stars, 338, 339

hydrogen sulfide, Venus, 163

I-7

hydrostatic equilibrium, 283

hydroxyl radical, 148

hyperbolas, 45

Hyperion (moon), 192, 215, 216

hypernova, 382

hyperthermophiles, 476

hypervelocity stars, 401

hypotheses, 29

Iapetus (moon), 213, 216

IC 2163, 418

IC 2220, see Toby Jug (star)

Icarus (asteroid), 239

ice, 204

on Ceres, 237

of comets, 246, 248, 249, 254

on Enceladus, 219, 220

on Europa, 202, 203

on Ganymede, 204

on Haumea and Namaka, 237

on Jupiter, 198

on Mars, 171, 175, 181

on Mercury, 160, 161

on Miranda, 224, 225

on Neptune, 224, 225, 227

on outer planets, 192

on Pluto and Charon, 236, 237

on Rhea, 218

in Saturn’s rings, 212, 213

see also ammonia ice; carbon dioxide ice (dry ice); methane ice

ice giants, 104, 126, 127, 128, 220

Iceland, 134

Ida (asteroid), 107, 242

ideal blackbody curve, 83

impact breccias (Moon), 147

impact craters

on Callisto, 205

from comets, 252

on Earth, 257

on Mercury, 158

from meteors, 257

impact rate, early solar system, 107, 108

impacts, of meteorites, 257

Index Catalogs (IC), 321

Indian-Australian plate, 134

inertia, law of, 42–43

inferior conjunction, 33

inferior planets, 33

inflation (universe expansion rate), 451–452, 462

inflationary epoch (of universe), 450, 451–452, 455–456

Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS), 73, 75, 398

infrared-detecting CCDs, 75

infrared radiation, 55, 56, 57, 75–77, 80

on Earth, 132

Infrared Space Observatory (ISO), 75

Infrared Telescope Facility (IRTF), 75

infrared telescopes, 75–77

inner planets

comparative planetology of, 184–185

comparison of, 185

formation of, 104–105

see also Earth; Mars; Mercury; Venus

instability strip, 336–337

intensity, and temperature, 82

intensity-versus-wavelength curve, 87

interference patterns, 52

interferometry, 71

and radio images, 73–74

intergalactic clouds of gas, 457–458

intergalactic gas, 24, 416, 420

intermediate-mass black holes, 378, 379, 399

International Astronomical Union, 108

International Space Station, 43, 45

International Ultraviolet Explorer (IUE), 77

interplanetary debris, 109

Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX), 273

interstellar clouds

collisions, 322–324

galactic center, 399

Milky Way, 397–398

interstellar extinction, 320

interstellar gas and dust, 24, 293, 318–322

black holes, 379

emission spectra from, 92

and galactic structure, 407

galaxy collisions, 416

and mapping Milky Way, 394

Milky Way, 358, 397

molecular clouds, 321–322

solar nebula, 100–102

and spiral density waves, 406, 407

and star formation, 99–100, 407

supernovae, 356

interstellar medium, 318–322

planetary nebula, 351

and supernovae, 358

interstellar reddening, 320, 321

intracluster gas, 436

inverse-square law, 44, 298, 299

Io (moon), 201–202

ionic bonding, 471

ionization, 90

and photons, 454

ionosphere, 132

ion tail (of a comet), 251–252

Io torus, 197, 202, 207

iridium, 260, 263

iron

on Earth, 136–137

ionized, 90

in Mercury’s core, 158–160

spectral lines of, 85

iron core, of supergiants, 355

iron meteorites, 260–261

iron oxides

on Earth, 131

on Mars, 175

irons, 260

irregular clusters of galaxies, 415

irregular galaxies, 411, 412

Irvine-Michigan-Brookhaven (IMB) detector, 360

Ishtar Terra (Venus), 166

island universe theory, 391

isotopes, 90

isotropy, 448–449, 451–452

isotropy problem, 451

Itokawa (asteroid), 241, 245

James Webb Space Telescope, 76, 123

Jansky, Karl, 72, 74, 426

JAXA, 245

Jeans, Sir James, 100

Jeans instability, 100, 321, 322

John Paul II, Pope, 42

joule, 54

joule-seconds, 54

Jovian planets, 128

see also Jupiter; Neptune; Saturn; Uranus

Julian calendar, 13–14

Juno (asteroid), 239

Juno spacecraft, 198

Jupiter, 24, 192–207

albedo of, 128

and asteroids, 239

atmosphere of, 193, 195–196, 229

aurorae, 197, 198, 199

average density of, 128, 194

belts and zones on, 193, 196

chemical composition of, 193, 194–196

clouds of, 193, 194, 195–196

comet and asteroid impacts, 198–199

core of, 198

differential rotation, 196

formation of, 103

gravity of, and asteroids, 241–244

ice on, 198

interior of, 196–198, 228, 229

magnetic field of, 223, 228, 229

magnetosphere, 197, 198

mantle, 196

mass of, 127, 193, 194, 195, 228

moons of, 42, 129

orbital data, 126

rings of, 206–207

rotation, 228

and Saturn, 105

size of, 126, 127, 193, 228

synodic and sidereal periods, 35

temperatures on, 195–196, 198

vital statistics, 192

winds on, 196

see also Galilean moons

Jupiter–Sun distance, 35, 40, 126

Kamiokande II neutrino detector, 288

and SN 1987A, 360

Kant, Immanuel, 391

kappa (κ) Arietis, 311, 312

Karin (asteroid), 243

Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array, 74

KBO 1993 SC, 247

KBO 1998 WW31, 247

Keck I and Keck II telescopes, 62, 70, 71, 72, 297

distant galaxies, 425

protogalaxies, 458

Titan, 218

Keeler, James, 212

Keeler gap, 212

Keenan, P.C., 305

Kelvin, Lord (William Thomson), 198

Kelvin-Helmholtz mechanism, 198

kelvins, 81

Kennedy, John F., 145

Kepler, Johannes, 28, 29, 36, 359

Kepler 9, 120

Kepler 37, 119, 120

Kepler 37b, 119

Kepler 70b, 120

I-8

Kepler 186f, 122

Kepler’s laws, 28, 29, 37–42

Kepler’s second law (law of equal areas), 39

Kepler’s third law, 39–41, 399, 402, 435

Newton’s derivation of, 40–41, 42, 307–308

and orbital speed, 420, 435

and stellar masses, 307, 308, 309

Kerberos (moon), 236

Kerr, Roy, 375

Kerr black holes, 375, 376, 377, 435

kilolight years, 40

Kin Peak National Observatory, 78

Kirchhoff, Gustav, 84–85, 87

Kirchhoff’s laws, 87–88

Kirkwood, Daniel, 241

Kirkwood gaps, 241

Kitt Peak National Observatory, 8

Kormendy, John, 434

Kreutz, Heinrich, 255

Kreutz comets, 255

K type stars, 303

Kuiper, Gerard, 105

Kuiper belt, 105, 106, 234, 237

comets, 246–248

Kuiper belt objects (KBOs), 105, 108, 247

L1014 dark nebula, 323

Lacerta (the Lizard), 432

Lagrange, Joseph, 244

lakes, frozen, on Triton, 227–228

Lakshmi Planum (Venus), 166

λ_max, 80

Land of the Midnight Sun, 12, 13

Large Binocular Telescope II, 67

large impact theory, see collision-ejection theory of Moon formation

Large Magellanic Cloud, 411

supernova 1987A, 359

Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave Observatory (LIGO), 374

Late Heavy Bombardment, 107–108, 143, 145, 148, 150

Mercury, 158

late type galaxies, 409

Laurasia, 135

lava

on Io, 202

on Mercury, 155, 156, 157, 158

on Moon, 145, 147, 150–152

on Venus, 165, 166

lava tubes, on Moon, 144, 145

law of action and reaction (Newton’s third law), 43–44

law of equal areas (Kepler’s second law), 39

law of inertia (Newton’s first law), 42–43

leading-arm spiral galaxies, 409

leap years, 13–14

Leavitt, Henrietta, 391

Leland, Evelyn, 302

LeMaître, Georges, 446, 461

length contraction, 370

lenses, 63, 66

see also eyepiece lenses; refracting telescopes

lenticulae, on Europa, 203–204

lenticular galaxies, 403, 409, 411

Leo (the Lion), 4

cosmic microwave background, 448

Leo I galaxy, 410

Leonid meteor shower, 258, 259

Lepus (the Hare), 244, 325

Leverrier, Urbain-Jean-Joseph, 45, 226

Levy, David, 198, 246

LGM1 (Little Green Men 1), 362

librations, lunar, 152

Lick Observatory, 63

life

existence requirements, 471–474

search for on Mars, 182–183

on Titan, 218

light

colors of, 50, 51

and gravitational curving of space, 372

nature of, 50–57

particle properties of, 50, 54

and spacetime, 372–373

wave nature of, 50–52, 54

from white dwarfs, 373

light, speed of, 53–54, 371

and special relativity, 369–370

light curves

of binaries, 309–310

of novae, 353

of supernova, 354

light-gathering power (telescopes), 60

lightning

generated by Eyjafjallajökull volcano in Iceland, 164

lightning storms in Jupiter’s magnetosphere, 197

on Saturn, 208

light pollution, 68–70

light rays, reflecting telescopes, 57–60

light-year (ly), 40

limb (of solar disk), 269

limb darkening, 269

Lin, C.C., 407

Lindblad, Bertil, 401, 406

line of nodes, 18–19

liquid metallic hydrogen

on Jupiter, 198

on Saturn, 210, 215

liquid water, and search for extraterrestrial life, 470, 471, 474

lithium, 120

early universe, 454

in solar system formation, 98

lithosphere, 137

Little Ice Age, 279

LMC X-3 (black hole), 377

Local Arm, 396

Local Group, 414, 415

Local Supercluster, 413

long-period comets, 254

loop quantum gravity, 449

Lowell, Percival, 169

luminosity, 298–299

and H-R diagram, 303–304

quasars, 429–430

and stellar spectra, 305–306

see also mass–luminosity relation; period–luminosity relation

luminosity classes, on H-R diagrams, 306

Lunar Crater Observing and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS), 148

lunar eclipses, 18–20

in 2015–2018, 20

lunar highlands, 145, 146, 147, 150

lunar month, see synodic month

lunar phases, 16–18

Lunar Prospector, 147, 148, 149

lunar ranging, 154

Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, 144, 148, 149

Lyman-alpha forest, 429

Lyman series, 91

Lynden-Bell, Donald, 433

Lyra (the Lyre), 4, 14, 114

Lyrids meteor shower, 258

M10 (globular cluster), 338

M13 (globular cluster), 478, 479

M15 (globular cluster), 351

M16 (nebula), see Eagle Nebula

M32 (elliptical galaxy), 404, 433–434

M33 (galaxy), 405

M43, 113

M55 (cluster), 339

M58 (galaxy), 400

M74 (galaxy), 405

M81 (galaxy), 403, 417

M82 (galaxy), 379, 417

M83 (galaxy), 395

M84 (galaxy), 409

M86 (galaxy), 409

M87 (giant elliptical galaxy), 432, 434

black hole in, 378, 381

M100 (galaxy), 391, 403

M103 (star cluster), 334

M104 (galaxy), 404

M105 (galaxy), 410

Maat Mons (Venus), 166

Mab (moon), 224

McCandless, Bruce, 27

MACHOs (massive compact halo objects), 402–403

Mackie, Johanna, 302

McMath-Pierce Solar Telescope, 78

Magellan spacecraft, 165–166, 167

MAGIC array, 78

magma, 137

magnesium, 136

magnetar, 365–366

magnetic dynamo model, 278–279

magnetic fields, 137–141

black hole accretion disk, 436

flip of, 278, 279

of Mars, 171, 173, 174

of Mercury, 159

of neutron stars, 364–366

north and south poles of, 278

plages, filaments, and prominences, 279–280, 281

strength of, 364

of Sun, 272–273, 276–282

sunspots, 276–279

Venus’s apparent lack of, 163, 167–168

magnetosphere, 138, 139

magnetotail, Jupiter, 197, 198

magnification, with telescopes, 62

magnitude scales, 296–299

main sequence, 304

lifetimes of stars, 332

stellar mass, 326

I-9

main-sequence stars, 304, 305–306, 329, 330–332

early and middle evolution of, 333–336

and mass–luminosity relation, 310–311

red dwarfs, 332–333

Makemake (dwarf planet), 108, 234, 237

Marconi, Guglielmo, 478

Mare Australe, 145

mare basalt, 146, 147

Mare Imbrium (Sea of Showers), 143, 145, 158, 259

Mare Ingenii, 145

Mare Moscoviense, 145

Mare Nectaris (Sea of Nectar), 143

Mare Nubium (Sea of Clouds), 143

Mare Orientale, 145, 158

Mare Serenitatis (Sea of Serenity), 143, 146

Mare Tranquillitatis (Sea of Tranquility), 143, 144, 145, 148

maria (sing., mare), 143–144, 150

Mariner 2, 250

Mariner 9, 169

Mariner 10, 155, 157, 158, 159

Mars, 168–184

albedo of, 128

and asteroids, 241, 244

atmosphere of, 175–177, 185

avalanches on, 181

“canals” on, 169

chemical composition of, 183

core of, 174–175

craters on, 169–172, 173, 177

crust of, 174

dust on, 175–177

formation of, 104–105

gravitational force of, 175

hematite on, 179

ice on, 171, 175, 181

interior of, 172–175, 185

life on, 474

magnetic field of, 185

magnetic fields of, 171, 173, 174

mantle of, 174

mass of, 127, 185

meteorites from, 181, 182, 183, 259

methane on, 183

moons of, 129, 183–184

northern waste or devastation and southern highlands, 169

orbital data, 126

regolith, 182–183

retrograde motion of, 31–32, 34

rivers and lakes on, 177, 178

rotation of, 185

search for microscopic life on, 182–183

seasons on, 175, 176

size of, 127, 185

surface of, 169–172, 173, 185

synodic and sidereal periods, 35

tectonic plate motion on, 174

temperatures on, 176

topography of, 170

vital statistics, 168

volcanoes, 169, 171, 172, 173–174

water on, 105, 169, 171, 172, 174, 175, 177–182

winds and storms on, 176–177

Mars Global Surveyor, 170, 172, 173, 178, 179, 180

Mars meteorite ALH84001, 471

Mars Pathfinder, 170, 176

Marsquakes, 181

Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, 174, 175, 181, 182

Mars–Sun distance, 35, 126

mascons (mass concentrations), 148

mass, 40–41

center of, 308–309

and force, 43

and pre–main-sequence star evolution, 324–326

mass extinctions, 263–264

mass loss

of supergiants, 355

from supermassive star, 326

mass–luminosity relation, 310–311

mass transfer, in binary systems, 340–344

mathematical models, 304

Mather, John C., 447

Mathilde (asteroid), 245, 246, 261

matter

in black hole, 374–376

creation of, from energy, 453

in early universe, 452–453

matter-dominated universe, 454

Mauna Kea, Hawaii, 67, 68, 71, 72

Maunder, E. Walter, 279

Maunder minimum, 279

Maxwell, James Clerk, 51–52, 53, 55

Maxwell Montes (Venus), 166

mean solar day, 13

megahertz, 55

megalight years, 40

Menzel 3 (Mz 3), 351

Mercury, 154–162

albedo of, 128, 155

atmosphere of, 161–162, 185

craters on, 155–158, 159

elongation of, 33–35

formation of, 104–105

interior of, 158, 159, 185

iron core of, 158–160

Late Heavy Bombardment, 108

magnetic field of, 159, 185

magnetosphere of, 159

mantle of, 159, 160

mass of, 127, 185

maximum elongation of, 38

and Moon, 156

orbital data, 126, 160

orbit of, and general relativity, 373

outgassing, 161

rotation and revolution of, 185

size of, 126, 127, 156, 185

solar day, 160

surface of, 154–158, 159, 160, 185

synodic and sidereal periods, 35

temperatures on, 156, 161–162

terminator, 157

vital statistics, 155

volcanoes on, 156, 157, 158

Mercury–Sun distance, 35, 126

mesosphere, 132

Messenger (Mercury Surface, Space, Environment, Geochemistry, and Ranging), 155–159, 160

Messier Catalogue, 327

metal-poor stars, see Population II stars

metal-rich stars, see Population I stars

metals, defined, 99

Meteor Crater, 257, 264

meteorites, 234, 256, 257, 258–262

ancient, 472

water in, 261

meteoroids, 24, 108, 234, 256–257

Tunguska event, 257

meteors, 234, 256, 257–258

meteor showers, 257–258

meteorwrongs, 261

methane

frozen, 237

on Jupiter, 195

on Mars, 183

on Titan, 216, 218

on Uranus, 220

methane ice, 246

Neptune, 224, 225, 227

Metis (moon), 206, 207

Mexico, Chicxulub Crater, 263, 264

MGC 2237, see Rosette Nebula (NGC 2237)

microcraters, 143

microlensing, 117, 118, 119, 402–403, 420

micrometers (mm), 55

microns (mm), 55

microwaves, 55, 56

microwave sky, 448

microwave telescopes, 74–75

Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 134

Milky Way Galaxy, 1, 390–403

black holes in, 377–378

central regions, 76

disk of, 358, 390, 394–397, 399–400, 401, 402

Drake equation and extraterrestrial civilizations in, 477–478

galactic center, 393, 397

gamma-ray burst in, 381

globular clusters in, 339

halo of, 390, 402, 403

Local Group, 414

luminosity of, 432

mass of, 402

microwave sky map, 448

motion of, 448

novae, 353

open clusters in, 340

planetary nebulae, 351

rotation of, 400–402

spiral arms and arm segments, 390, 395, 396, 400

supernovae in, 358

supernova remnants in, 358

Miller, Stanley, 473

Miller-Urey experiment, 473

millisecond pulsars, 367

Mimas (moon), 211, 216

Minkowski, Rudolph, 426

Minor Planet Center, 239–240

minor planets, see planetesimals

I-10

Miranda (moon), 224, 225

mirrors

focal length of, 58

in telescopes, 57–60

see also reflecting telescopes

missing mass, in Milky Way, 402

Mizar A and Mizar B (binary system), 308

models, 29, 31, 161

Moe (Martian rock), 176

molecular clouds, 319

molecules, 90

momentum, see angular momentum

Monoceros (the Unicorn), 67, 323, 330

star formation in, 100

Monoceros giant molecular cloud, 323

see also Cone Nebula

month, 17

see also sidereal month; synodic month

Moon, 125, 141–154

albedo of, 147

atmosphere, 150

core of, 149

craters on, 107, 141–143, 144, 145, 150, 152

creation of, 105

crust of, 145, 147, 149

during day, 17

and Earth’s seasons, 14

far side and dark side of, 16–17, 145, 149, 151–153, 156

formation of, 150–152

highlands, 145, 146, 150

interior of, 147–148, 150

Late Heavy Bombardment, 107–108

lava on, 145, 147, 150–152

librations, 152

magnetic field of, 150

mantle of, 149

maria, 150

meteorite from, 259

meteorite impacts on, 258

movement away from Earth, 154

phases of, 16–18

recent impacts on, 259

regolith, 146, 147

sidereal month, 17–18

surface of, 141–145

synchronous rotation of, 152–153, 154

synodic month, 17–18

terminator, 17

and tides on Earth, 152, 153–154

umbra and penumbra of, 20, 21

vital statistics, 141

see also entries under lunar

Moon–Earth system, 152–153

moonlets, in Saturn’s rings, 213

moonquakes, 147

Moon rocks, 90, 146–147, 150

dating of, 108

moons (natural satellites), 108

of outer planets, 192, 228–229

of planets, 128–129

potential for developing and supporting life, 474

see also shepherd satellites

Morgan, W.W., 305

morning star, 33

Venus as, 162

motion, see direct motion; diurnal motion; planetary motion; retrograde motion, of planets

Mount Everest, 136

MS 1054-03 (galaxy cluster), 426

M stars, 303

M-theory, 449

muon neutrinos, 288

muons, 288

Namaka (moon), 237

nanometer (nm), 52

Nasmyth, James, 59

Nasmyth focus, 59, 86

National Aeronautics and Space Agency (NASA)

astrobiology, 476

cataloging dangerous asteroids, 264

Explorer 42, 367

Great Observatories, 70, 75, 76, 77

High-Energy Transient Explorer, 382

IBEX, 273

and search for extraterrestrial intelligence, 471

SOHO, 282

National Radio Astronomy Observatory, 73, 123

natural satellites, see moons (natural satellites)

neap tides, 154

Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous (NEAR) Shoemaker spacecraft, 245, 246

Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer (NICMOS), 75–76

nebulae, 318, 391

see also dark nebulae; emission nebulae; planetary nebulae; reflection nebula; spiral nebulae

neon, in the Sun, 273

neon fusion, 355, 356

Neptune, 224–228

albedo of, 128

and asteroids, 244

atmosphere of, 229

average density of, 128

belts and zones on, 224, 225

clouds, 224

discovery of, 45, 226

formation of, 104

gravity and comets, 246

Great Dark Spot, 226

ice on, 224, 225, 227

images of, 71

interior of, 222, 226, 228, 229

magnetic field of, 223, 226, 228, 229

mass of, 127, 228

moons of, 129, 227–228

orbital data, 126

and Pluto, 105, 235, 247

rings of, 226–227

rotation of, 224–226, 228

and Saturn, 105

size of, 126, 127, 228

storms on, 226

synodic and sidereal periods, 35

tides on, 227, 228

trans-Neptunian objects, 106

vital statistics, 221

Neptune–Sun distance, 35, 126

neutral atoms, 90, 455

neutral hydrogen (H I), 90, 327, 394–395

neutrino detectors, 288–289

and Supernova 1987A, 360

neutrinos, 285, 287–289, 356

cosmic, 447

and dark matter, 402

early universe, 452, 453

formation of, 451

neutron degeneracy pressure, 362, 369, 373

neutrons, 89–90

early universe, 452, 453

transformation into protons, 449

neutron stars, 118, 362–369

atmosphere of, 366

axis of rotation of, 364–365

collision of, 367

and gas jets, 380–381

internal structure of, 366–367

magnetic fields of, 364–366

mass of, 369

pulsars, 364–365

remnants, 373

rotation of, and magnetic fields, 364–366

and X-ray bursters, 369

New Astronomy (Kepler), 37, 38

New General Catalog (NGC), 321

New Horizons spacecraft, 207, 237

new Moon, 16, 18

New Technology Telescope, 70

Newton, Isaac, 28–29, 40–41, 43

on continental drift, 134

creating parabolic surface, 66

and Kepler’s third law, 40–41, 42, 307–308

on light, 50

and static universe, 444

telescopes, 57–58

Newtonian reflector, 58, 59

Newton’s first law (law of inertia), 42–43

Newton’s law of universal gravitation, 29, 30, 44–46, 372

Newton’s laws of motion, 42–44, 372

Newton’s second law (force law), 43

Newton’s third law (law of action and reaction), 43–44

NGC 604, 92

NGC 664, 424

NGC 891, 404

NGC 1265, 432

NGC 1313, 379

NGC 1357, 403

NGC 1512, 417

NGC 1566, 430

NGC 2023 (reflection nebula), 321

NGC 2024 (emission nebula), 321

NGC 2207, 418

NGC 2237, see Rosette Nebula (NGC 2237)

NGC 2264, 329–330

NGC 2363, 92

NGC 3077, 417

NGC 3115, 435

NGC 3377, 410

NGC 3393, 418

NGC 3576, 321

NGC 3603, 321

NGC 4151, 430

I-11

NGC 4261, 435

NGC 4406, 410

NGC 4485, 411

NGC 4490, 411

NGC 4676, 418

NGC 5128 (Centaurus A), 431

NGC 5907, 404

NGC 6240, 418, 419

NGC 6520 (star cluster), 320

NGC 6826, 351

NGC 7052, 378, 379

Nice model, 100, 105, 109, 118–119, 120, 150, 198, 213, 240

nickel, radioactive decay to cobalt, 354

night sky, 1, 2–7

nitrogen

on Earth, 130, 131

and existence of life, 471, 472

frozen, 237

on Mars, 175

on Pluto, 237

on Titan, 216

Nix (moon), 236

NN Serpens (binary star), 309

nonoptical astronomy, 71–79

Norma (the Carpenter’s Square), 351, 355

Norma Arm, 396

North American plate, 134, 136

north and south magnetic poles, 138, 139

north celestial pole, 5, 6, 14

precession and path of, 15

northern lights (aurora borealis), 140

North Star, see Polaris (star)

nova, 353

light curve, 353

Nova Cygni 1975, 353

Nova Herculis 1934, 353

nuclear bulge, see central bulge

nuclear density, 356

nuclear fission, 135

early universe, 453

nuclear fusion, 135, 332

nuclear physics, 88

nucleosynthesis, 354, 367

nucleus (of an atom), 88–90

OBAFGKM sequence, 303

OB associations, 328, 329, 411

objective lenses, 63, 64, 65

observations, 29, 30

confirming, 240

Occam’s razor, 29, 174, 251, 437

occultation, 222

Olbers, Heinrich, 238

Oliver, Bernard, 474–476

olivine, 180, 261

Olympus Mons (Mars), 171, 172, 174

1RXS 1609 (star), 117

Oort, Jan, 247

Oort cloud, 105, 106, 246, 247–248

open clusters (of stars), 99, 322–323, 328, 329–330, 340

open universe, 462

Ophelia (moon), 222

Ophiuchus (the Serpent Holder), 13

globular cluster in, 338

merging galaxies in, 419

Opportunity rover, 170, 176, 177, 179, 180, 181

opposition (of planets), 35

optical doubles, 307

orbital eccentricity, 37–38, 126

orbital inclination, 109, 126

orbital period, 126

orbits

of exoplanets, 120

of planets, 108, 109, 126

shapes of, 45

O’Reilly, Mollie, 302

organic molecules, extraterrestrial, 472–474

Orion (the Hunter), 4

and asterism, 2, 3

dark and emission nebulae, 321

light images, 73

stars in, 297

see also Betelgeuse (supergiant)

Orionids meteor shower, 258

Orion Molecular Cloud, 99, 113, 114

Orion Nebula, 100, 102, 113, 114, 321, 328

Orion’s belt, 4

Orion Spur, 396

O stars, 303, 327, 328, 397, 406, 459

Outer Arm, 396

outer planets, 191–232

comparison of planetary features, 228–229

see also Jupiter; Neptune; Saturn; Uranus

outgassing, 161

overcontact binaries, 342, 343, 344

oxygen

atomic structure of, 89

carbon and creation of, 336

on Earth, 130–131

on Ganymede, 205

on Mars, 175

photon emission, 92

on Venus, 165

oxygen fusion, 354, 355, 356

oxygen isotopes, 89

ozone, 57, 131–132

ozone holes, 132

ozone layer, 57, 131–132

Pacific plate, 134, 136, 174

pair production, 453

Pallas (asteroid), 107, 238–239, 240

pallasite, 261

Pallene (moon), 213

Palomar Observatory, 68, 69, 426

Pan (moon), 212

Pandora (moon), 212, 213

Pangaea, 134, 135

parabolas, orbits, 45

parallax, 36, 37, 294–296

to determine distance, 295, 296

see also spectroscopic parallax; stellar parallax

parallax angle, 294–296, 299

Paranal Observatory, 49, 71

parsec, 40, 296

Parsons, William, Lord Rosse, 391

partial eclipse, 19

partial solar eclipse, 21

particles, in early universe, 452–453

Paschen series, 91

Pathfinder, 181

patience, research and, 70

Pauli, Wolfgang, 288, 335

Pauli exclusion principle, 335, 362

Payne-Gaposchkin, Cecilia, 301

peculiar galaxies, 430–431

Peebles, P.J.E., 446

Pegasus constellation, 351

quasar, 438

penumbra, 19, 20, 21

sunspots, 274

penumbral eclipse, 19

Penzias, Arno, 446

peridot, 249

perihelion, 38

periodic table of elements, 85, 86

period–luminosity relation, 337–338

for Type I Cepheids, 391–392

Permian-Triassic boundary, 263

peroxides, 183

Perseids meteor shower, 258

Perseus Arm, 396

Perseus cluster of galaxies, 432, 436

Perseus constellation, 343

Petit-Prince (moon), 242

phase transition, 196

phi (ϕ) Persei, 344

Phobos (moon), 183–184

Phoebe (moon), 215, 216

Phoebe ring, 213

Phoenix Mars Lander, 171, 175

phosphorus, and existence of life, 471

photodisintegration, 356

photoelectric effect, 54

photography, and astronomy, 66–68, 239

photoionization, 90, 92

photometry, 300

photomultipliers, 289

photon collisions, 453

photon energy, 54

photon pressure, in comets, 251

photons, 50, 54

absorbed and emitted, 90–92

early universe, 452–453

formation of, 451

frequency of, 54

ionization, 454

long- and short-wavelength, 83

primordial, 455

photosphere (Sun), 268, 269, 270, 277, 278, 279, 283

photosynthesis, 130

physical forces, unification of, 449, 450

Piazzi, Giuseppe, 237

Pickering, Edward C., 302

Pierre Auger Observatory, 362

Pilan Patera (Io), 201

Pioneer 10, 478, 479

Pioneer 11, 478, 479

Pioneer spacecraft, 198

Pioneer Venus Orbiter, 162

Pisces (the Fish) constellation

Sun in, 9, 10

vernal equinox in, 16

Pistol Star, 326

pixels, 67–68

PKS 2000-330 (quasar), 429

plages, 279–280

Planck, Max, 54, 450

ideal blackbody curves, 83

I-12

Planck era, 449, 450, 465

Planck’s constant, 54

Planck’s law, 83

Planck Space Telescope, 457

Planck time, 450

planetary configurations, 33–35

planetary differentiation, 135

planetary habitable zone, 475

planetary motion

geocentric explanation, 32–33

heliocentric explanation of, 31–36

planetary nebulae, 99, 349–351

shapes of, 351

planetary orbits, 108, 109

planetesimals, 238

in Kuiper belt, 105

solar system formation, 103, 104

planetology, comparative, 126–129, 184–185

planets, 30, 97, 234

albedos of, 128

average density of, 127, 128

configurations of, 33–35

conjunction and opposition of, 35

defined, 108

direct and retrograde motion of, 30–33

elongations of, 33–35

formation of, 103–105

free-floating, 120

inferior and superior, 33

mass of, 126–127

moons of, 128–129

number of, 122

orbit of, 37–39, 126

periods of, 35, 40–41

proper motion of, 92

sidereal and synodic periods of, 18, 35, 39

sizes of, 126, 127

spectra of, 128

speed of, 38, 39

see also dwarf planets; exoplanets

plasmas, 454

Jupiter, 207

photosphere, 277

plasma tail (of a comet), 251–252

plasma tori, on Jupiter, 207

plate tectonics, 133–135, 138

on Ganymede, 204

Pleiades star cluster, 311, 318, 320, 322, 329, 339

plutinos, 105, 106, 246, 247

Pluto, 234–237, 240

and Charon, 235–237

demotion from planet status, 108

formation of, 105, 106

mass of, 235

and Neptune’s gravity, 247

orbital eccentricity, 234–235

plutoids, 105, 106, 234

pointer stars, Big Dipper as, 3, 7

Polaris (star), 3–4, 8, 14

pollution, light, 2

polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), 473

polymers, 218

poor cluster, 414

Population I stars, 340, 342, 351, 396

Population II stars, 340, 396

Population III stars, 456–457

positrons, 285, 399, 453

early universe, 452

from proton-proton fusion, 284, 285

powers-of-ten notation, 23

precession, 14–16

of equinoxes, 16

predictions, 28–30

quantitative, 46

pre–main-sequence stars, 324–326

pre-solar nebula, see solar nebula

primary cosmic rays, 361

primary mirrors, 58, 59, 60, 62, 63, 67, 70–71

light-gathering power of telescope and, 60, 61

prime focus, 59

prime meridian, 7

primordial atom of universe, 446

primordial black holes, 378, 379–380, 383

primordial fireball, 454

primordial gas, galaxies formed from clouds of, 455–459

primordial nucleosynthesis, 453–454

primordial photons, 447, 455

prism, spectrum and, 50, 51

Procyon (star), 4

prograde motion, 30

prograde orbits, 206

Project Ozma, 471, 476

Prometheus (moon), 201, 212, 213

prominences (of filaments), 279, 280

proper motion, 92–93

proplyds, see protoplanetary disks

protogalaxies, 458, 459

proton-proton chain (PP chain), 284–285, 333

protons, 89–90

early universe, 452, 453

protons and electrons gas, and black holes, 435–437

protoplanetary disks, 102, 114

distorted, 114–115

proto-solar nebula, see solar nebula

protostars, 323–324, 325

in Bok globule, 323

protosun, 100, 101, 102–104, 110

Proxima Centauri, 40, 294, 296, 299

PSR 0329+54 (pulsar), 362

PSR 1916+13 (pulsar), 367

PSR 1937+21 (pulsar), 364

PSR B1257+12, 118

PSR J0337+1715 (millisecond pulsar), 367

PSR J0737-3039 (double pulsar), 367

Ptolemy, 32

pulsars, 118, 220–222, 362–369

glitch in, 366–367

lighthouse model of, 365

pulsar timing method for detecting planets, 117

pyroxene, on Mars, 180

Pythagoras, 28

Quadrantids meteor shower, 258

quantum fluctuations, 456

quantum mechanics, 88, 90

Quaoar, 247

quarks, 449, 450, 451

early universe, 452

quasars, 426–430

brightness of, 429–430

central engine, 437

earliest, 458

energy emitted by, 429

formation of, 429

gravity and light from, 437–438

luminosity of, 429–430, 432

redshifts of, 427–430

quasi-stellar objects (QSOs), 428

quasi-stellar radio sources, see quasars

quintessence, 465

Quintuplet Cluster, 326

R136 (star cluster), 317

R136a1 (star), 326

radial velocity, 92, 93

radial-velocity curve, 311

radial velocity method of detecting exoplanets, 115–116

radiation-dominated universe, 454

radiation pressure, in comets, 251

radiative transport, 283

radiative zone (Sun), 283, 286

radioactive age-dating, 89–90

radioactive decay, 89, 135

radioactive elements, 88

radioactive isotopes, 89

radio galaxies, 430–432

radio intensity, 74

radio lobes, 427, 431

radio radiation, 431

radio sources, 426–428

radio stations, frequency of, 55

radio telescopes, 72–75

mapping Milky Way, 394, 395

radio waves, 55, 56, 72–73, 80

in early universe, 446

and search for extraterrestrial intelligence, 471, 474–477, 479

raindrops, on Titan, 216

RCW 49 (star), 324

Reber, Grote, 426

recessional velocity, 422

recombination, 350

era of, 455

red dwarfs, 304, 332–333, 348

red giant stars, 304, 334

Red Sea, 134

redshift, 54

and clusters of galaxies, 445

cosmological, 445, 446

of quasars, 427–430

of superclusters, 422–425

Red Spot Jr., 194, 195

red supergiants, 350

reflecting telescopes, 57–60, 63

disadvantages of, 64–66

infrared and ultraviolet, 75–77

reflection, principle of, 57–58

reflection nebula, 318, 321

Pleiades, 320

reflectors, see reflecting telescopes

refracting telescopes, 57, 63–64

essentials of, 64

largest, at Yerkes Observatory, 63, 65

problems of, 63–64

I-13

refraction, 50, 62–63

regolith, 259

regular cluster of galaxies, 415

Regulus (star), 4, 300, 306

relativity, 370

relativity theories, 282, 369–374

see also general relativity, theory of; special relativity

remote binaries, 311

Remus (moon), 242

repulsive gravity, 464

resolution, see angular resolution

resonance, 105

Cassini division, 211–212

plutinos and Neptune, 247

retrograde motion, of planets, 30–33

retrograde rotation, 168

Uranus, 220

Venus, 168

revolution, 9–10

Rhea (moon), 213, 218

rich cluster, 414

right ascension (R.A.), 6

rilles, 143–144

ringlets

Jupiter, 206

Saturn, 211, 212

Roche, Edouard, 340

Roche limit, 213

Roche lobes, 342–343, 368

rocket nozzle model, 436

Roentgen, Wilhelm, 55

Roman Catholic Church, Galileo’s condemnation by, 41

Rømer, Ole, 53

Romulus (moon), 242

Rosetta spacecraft, 252, 253

Rosette Nebula (NGC 2237), 67, 92, 323

Rosse, Lord, see Parsons, William, Lord Rosse

rotating radio transients (RRATs), 366

rotation, in solar system formation, 102

see also differential rotation; retrograde rotation

RR Lyrae stars, 392

RR Lyrae variables, 337

rubidium, 85

Russell, Henry Norris, 303–304

Rutherford, Ernest, 88, 89

Sa galaxies, 404, 407

Sagan, Carl, 470

Sagitta (the Arrow), 4

Sagittarius A (Sgr A), 398, 426

Sagittarius A, 398, 399

Sagittarius Arm, 396

Sagittarius constellation

globular clusters, 393

radio noise, 72

Sagittarius Dwarf galaxy, 400, 414–415

Saha, Meghnad, 301

Sakharov, Andrei, 456

salts, on Mars, 177

San Andreas fault, 134, 136

Sandage, Allan, 427

sand dunes, on Titan, 218

Santa Maria Rupes (Mercury), 158

Sapas Mons (Venus), 166

Saturn, 191, 207–220

albedo of, 128

atmosphere, 207–210, 228

auroras of, 207, 208

average density of, 128

belts and zones on, 207–208, 209

differential rotation of, 207–208

formation of, 104, 105

interior of, 196, 210, 228, 229

magnetic field of, 215, 223, 228, 229

mass of, 127, 228

moons of, 129, 215–220

orbital data, 126

rings of, 210–215, 220

rotation of, 228

size of, 126, 127, 228

storms and winds on, 208–209

synodic and sidereal periods, 35

temperatures on, 195

visible and radio views of, 74

vital statistics, 208

Saturn–Sun distance, 35, 126

SBa galaxy, 409

SBb galaxy, 409

SBc galaxy, 409

Sb galaxies, 404, 407

scarps

on Mercury, 158, 159

on Moon, 148

scattered KBOs, 247

Sc galaxies, 404, 407

Schaller, Adolf, 443

Scheila (asteroid), 241

Schiaparelli, Giovanni Virginio, 169

Schmidt, Bernhard, 65

Schmidt, Maarten, 428

Schmidt-Cassegrain telescopes, 66

Schmidt corrector plate, 65–66

Schmitt, Harrison, 146

Schwabe, Samuel, 273

Schwarzschild, Karl, 374

Schwarzschild black holes, 375, 435

Schwarzschild radius, 374, 375, 376

science, 28–30

as inclusive, 30

scientific method, 28–30

scientific notation, 23

scientific theory, 29–30, 134

explanations and, 41

scintillators, 77

Scorpius-Centaurus OB association, 359

Scott, David, 144

Scutum-Centaurus Arm, 396

seafloor spreading, 134

Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI), 123, 471, 474–477

seasons

on Earth, 10–16

on Uranus, 220, 222

secondary cosmic rays, 361

secondary mirror, 58, 59–60

Sedna (dwarf planet), 247, 248

Sedna (Oort cloud object), 106

seeing, 68

seeing disk, 68

Segue 1, 420

seismic waves, 137

seismographs, 137

SELENE orbiter, 145

self-propagating star formation, 406

semidetached binary systems, 342, 343, 344

white dwarfs, 353

semimajor axis, 37, 38, 39

SETI@home, 476

seven sisters (Pleiades), 311

Seyfert, Carl, 430

Seyfert galaxies, 430, 432, 436

Shapley, Harlow, 391, 393

Shapley concentration, 448

Shapley–Curtis debate, 391–392

shepherd satellites

Saturn, 212, 213

Uranus, 222–224

shield volcanoes, 174

shock waves

galaxy collisions, 416

OB associations, 328

and star birth, 406

supernovae, 356

Shoemaker, Carolyn and Eugene, 198, 246

shooting stars, 256–257

short-period comets, 254

Shu, Frank, 407

Siberia, Tunguska event, 257

sidereal day, 13, 14

sidereal month, 17–18

sidereal period, 9, 35, 39

silicon fusion, 355, 356

silicon-oxygen bonding, 471, 472

silicon-silicon bonding, 471

single-line spectroscopic binary, 311

singularity, 373, 375, 377

Sirius (star), 4, 297, 352

Sirius B (star), 352

Sitter, Willem de, 461

61 Cygni (star), 294

Skylab missions, 77

Slipher, Vesto, 422

Sloan Digital Sky Survey, 413, 438

Small Magellanic Cloud, 391, 411

small solar system bodies (SSSBs), 108, 234, 238–264

see also asteroids; comets; meteorites; meteors; meteoroids

Smoot, George F., 447

SN 1997ff, 463

SNC meteorites, 259

from Mars, 181, 182

snow line, 103, 104

sodium vapor lights, 87

SOFIA (Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy), 76

soft gamma-ray repeaters (SGRs), 365

Sojourner rover, 179

Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO), 77, 255, 280, 281, 282

solar corona, 20, 21, 271–272, 279, 280

solar cycle, 278–279

solar day, 13, 14

solar disk, 269

Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO), 77, 267

solar eclipses, 18, 20–22

in 2015–2018, 22

and chromosphere, 270

solar flares, 281

solar granulation, 269, 270, 274

I-14

solar luminosity, 283, 284

solar maximum, 279

solar nebula, 100–102

solar neutrinos, 287–289

solar radius, 286

solar spectrum, 84, 85, 87–88, 276, 342

solar system

age of, from meteorites, 259

birth of, from supernova, 262

categories of objects, 108

comet reservoirs, 246–248

formation of, 98–103, 236

solar telescopes, 77

Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory (STEREO), 77

solar vibrations, 277–278

solar wind, 139–140, 250, 251, 272–273, 280

and Jupiter, 197

and Mercury, 159

solstices, 11

see also summer solstice; winter solstice

Sombrero Galaxy (M104), 389, 404, 434

sound, speed of, 53

sound waves, in inflationary universe, 456

south celestial pole, 5, 6, 14

southern lights (aurora australis), 140

Soviet Union

Moon missions, 145

Venus probes, 163

spacetime, 371

curvature of, 371, 372

expansion of, 425, 445

formation of, 446

and gravitational waves, 374

and light, 372–373

and matter, 371

shape of, 461–463

space weather, 282

space weather satellites, 140–141

special relativity, 369–371

spectra, 50, 51

of planets, 128

spectral analysis, 84–88

of binary stars, 311

spectral lines, 84–87, 276–277

brightness levels of, 87–88

orbital motion of binary stars and wavelengths of, 311–312

Zeeman effect, 276, 277

spectral types, 302–303

spectrogram, 84

spectrograph, 59, 85–86

grating, 86

spectroscope, 84

spectroscopic binaries, 311–312

spectroscopic parallax, 306, 424

spectroscopy, 84, 85, 311

stellar, 301

speculum metal, 59

spherical aberration, 64, 65, 66

spherical lens, geometry of, 65

Spica (star), 4

spicules, 270, 271

spin, 394

spin flips, 394

spiral arms, 406–407

barred spiral galaxies, 395, 396, 409

of flocculent spirals, 406–407

Milky Way, 395, 396

spiral galaxies, 403–405

spiral density waves, 406

spiral galaxies, 403–405, 411, 412

early universe, 459–460

formation of, 412

rotation curves of, 420

see also Seyfert galaxies; barred spiral galaxies; flocculent spiral galaxies

spiral nebulae, 391

spiral tracers, 395

Spirit rover, 170, 176, 177, 183

Spitzer Space Telescope, 75–76, 213

and ingredients for life, 473

Milky Way, 390, 396

quasars, 437

spokes, in Saturn’s rings, 215

spring, 11

spring tides, 153

stable Lagrange points, 244

standard candles, 423

Type la supernovae, 463

star birth, 322, 416

starburst galaxies, 416, 417

star clusters, plotting on H-R diagrams, 328–330

Stardust mission, 248–249, 472

star formation, 395

early universe, 443, 456–458, 459–460, 464

in flocculent spirals, 406

and galactic collisions, 416

in merging galaxies, 419

process summary, 331

self-propagating, 406

Starry Night™, 6

stars

age of, 328–330

apparent magnitude of, 297–298

Balmer lines of, 302–303

blackbody spectra of, 300

circumpolar, 8

classification of, by spectra, 302–303

color of, and temperature, 300–301

first, and solar system formation, 98–99

formation of, 98–99

fully convective, 332

giant phase, 333–334

lives of, 317–318

lowest mass, 332–333

of more than 0.4 M, 333–334

motion of, at poles, 8

with multiple planets, 120

neutron, 118

open clusters of, 99

proper motion of, 92–93

radial and transverse velocity of, 93

red dwarfs, 348

red supergiants to white dwarfs, 350

rising and setting of, 8, 9

temperatures, 299–303

types of, 303–306

variable, 336–337

see also entries under stellar and binary star systems; binary stars; neutron stars; supergiant stars

stars, high-mass, 349, 354–362

evolutionary stages, 356

neutron degeneracy pressure, 373

structure of, 355

and supernovae, 355–358

stars, intermediate-mass, 348–354

evolution of, 348

structure of, 349

steady-state theory, 447

Stefan, Josef, 82

Stefan-Boltzmann law, 82, 269, 304

stellar black holes, 383

in Milky Way, 377–378

stellar cataclysms, 382

stellar cores, and white dwarfs, 351–352

stellar distances, 294–296

stellar evolution, 294

summary, 384

stellar masses, 307–312

stellar nurseries, 322–323

stellar parallax, 294–296

stellar radii, 305

stellar remnant black holes, 377–378

stellar remnants, 362, 364

stellar spectra, 305

and gravitational redshifts, 373

and luminosity, 305–306

of metal-rich and metal-poor stars, 342

and star surface temperature, 301–302

stellar spectroscopy, 301

stellar structure, equations of, 287, 325

stellar winds, 99

giant stars, 349, 350

intermediate-mass stars, 349

OB associations, 328

Stephan, Edouard, 412

Stephan’s quintet, 412

Stickney, Angeline, 184

Stickney crater on Phobos, 184

stones, 260

stony-iron meteorites, 261

stony-irons, 260

stony meteorites, 260–262

storms, on Saturn, 208–209

stratosphere, 131, 132

strong nuclear force, 89

and other physical forces, 449, 450, 451

Styx (moon), 236

Subaru Telescope, 75

sublimation., 161

Sudbury Neutrino Observatory, 288–289

sulfur, 201, 202

sulfur dioxide

on Io, 202

on Venus, 163

sulfuric acid, on Venus, 163

summer, 11

summer solstice, 11, 12

summer triangle, 4–5

Sun, 24, 267–291

absolute magnitude of, 298

absorption spectrum of, 85, 87–88

active, 273–282

apparent magnitude of, 297

atmosphere of, 269–273

as a blackbody, 80, 82

core of, 282–283, 286, 287

daily path and energy deposited, 11–12

development of, 110

differential rotation of, 275, 277, 278, 401

ecliptic, 6–7, 9, 10

I-15

energy of, 282–287

evolution of, 336

fate of, 351

formation of, 102

as G2 star, 303, 304, 306

as a giant, 334

gravitational pull on Moon, 18

gravity of, 272

increasing brightness of, 287

interior of, 282–289

iron in, 85

luminosity of, 432

magnetic fields of, 272–273, 276–282

mass of, 287

and Moon, 16

orbital speed, 401

as Population I star, 340

rotation of, 277, 364

temperatures of, 271–273, 279, 287

ultraviolet image of, 267

vital statistics, 268

see also entries under solar

sun-centered cosmology, see heliocentric cosmology

sungrazing comets, 255, 256

sunquakes, 277

sunspot collisions, 281

sunspot cycle, 273–276, 278, 279

and solar flares, 281

sunspot groups, 273, 274, 275

and solar flares, 281

sunspot maximum, 274, 275

sunspot minimum, 274, 275

sunspots, 273–279

granulation, 274

magnetic fields of, 276

magnetic north and south poles, 278

and Sun’s magnetic fields, 276–279

superclusters (of galaxies), 24, 456, 457

distribution of, 412–413

gravitational binding of, 422

motion of, 422–426

redshifts of, 422–425

separation rate, 464

superconductors, 366

supercontinents, 137

Pangaea, 134, 135

super-Earth, 119

superfluids, 366

supergiant stars, 304, 305, 349–351, 355, 360

supergranules, 270, 271

superior conjunction, 33

superior planets, 33

supermassive black holes, 362, 378–379, 381, 399, 401, 433–435

accretion disks, 437

formation of, 457–458, 460

and galactic activity, 435, 436

galaxy structures and, 412

gravitational energy, 433–435