Chapter 1. Babies and Toddlers

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{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("your_her", "your")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("you_she", "you")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("you_she_cap", "You")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("I_will_I_will_encourage", "I will")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("you_her", "you")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("gay_you_him", "you")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("You_have_partnername_has_cap", "You have")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("You_have_your_partner_has_cap", "You have")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("you_have_partnername_has", "you have")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("you_want_she_needs", "you want")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("you_decide_she_decides", "you decide")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("your", "your")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("Your_cap", "Your")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("You_Your partner_cap", "You")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("Your_partners_cap", "Your")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("your_partners", "your")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("Are_you_cap", "Are you")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("are_you", "are you")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("you_are", "you are")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("You_are_she_is_cap", "You are")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("You_are_partner_is_cap", "You are")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("you_are_partnername_is", "you are")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("you_are_partner_is", "you are")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("Do_you_cap", "Do you")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("do_you", "do you")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("I_am", "I am")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("I_My_partner", "I")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("I_am_she_is", "I am")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("I_am_she_is_cap", "I am")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("you", "you")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("you_cap", "You")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("youre_she_is", "you are")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("you_end", "you")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("I_need", "I need")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("I_want", "I want")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("You_probably_dont", "You probably don’t")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("You_dont_cap", "You don’t")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("I_dont_cap", "I don’t")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("You_dont", "you don’t")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("yourself", "yourself")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("yourself_partnername", "yourself")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("your_her", "your")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("you_she", "you")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("you_her", "you")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("you_know", "you know")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("you_choose", "you choose")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("you_she_choose", "you choose")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("you_go", "you go")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("you_he_she_go", "you go")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("You_are_cap", "You are")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("you_were", "you were")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("you_were_partnername_was", "you were")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("you_were_she_was", "you were")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("you_have_she_has", "you have")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("You_have_she_has_cap", "You have")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("you_are", "you are")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("you_are_she_is", "you are")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("you_need_partnername_needs", "you need")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("you_partnername", "you")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("you_partnername_not_preg", model.partnerName)

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("you_partnername_cap", "You")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("your_own_her", "your own")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("you_will_partnername_will", "you will")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("you_will_partnername_will_cap", "You will")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("Enjoy_yourself", "Enjoy yourself")

Learn More

Explain

While babies don’t have the words or the coordination to show us what they perceive about the world around them, careful research has shown that they have many well-developed senses that help them make sense of the world.

Look Inside

At birth, infants can discriminate a variety of sounds important for language. They can hear the difference between "Pa Pa Pa" and "Ba Ba Ba." But they may not be able to hear quiet sounds children and adults easily notice.

Newborns are extremely nearsighted even at close distances, and they cannot form clear images for the first few months of life. This is the result of immaturity of neural connections in the retina and visual cortex, and immaturity of the eye lens and its muscles.

Infants, before birth, appear to learn odors from their mother's diet during pregnancy. Depending on a mother's diet, an infant's reactions to some odors, such as anise, can vary.

While babies are developing their senses, their brains are also growing quickly. This animation provides two perspectives of brain development in infants and toddlers. A microscopic view highlights the formation of myelin on the connecting fibers (axons) of neurons. A macroscopic view shows the brain growing in step with the enlargement of the infant’s head.

Continue

IT2

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{true} setModel("mother_school_work", "work")

{model.motherStudent == "true"} setModel("mother_school_work", "school")

{true} setModel("both_work_part_time", "false")

{true} setModel("quit_school_work", "false")

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{true} setModel("partner_quit_school_work", "false")

{true} setModel("child_care", "share")

{true} setModel("IT2_Q1", "")

{model.Mother == "user"} setModel("IT2_Q1", model.partnerName + " has some paid time off to take when baby comes, but " + model.partnerHeShe + " is nervous about being out of the office for a long time. How much time will " + model.partnerHeShe + " take after the baby arrives? ")

{model.Mother == "partner"} setModel("IT2_Q1", "You have some paid time off to take when baby comes, but you are nervous about being out of the office for a long time. How much time will you take after the baby arrives? ")

{true} setModel("IT2_feedback_male", "Adjusting to baby can be hard for a family, and it can help to have another set of hands to burp the baby and change the diapers. And having that extra time with the little one can be—enormously rewarding. But many fathers in the United States feel pressure to get back to the office right away after a baby is born. Some even feel like they are handed additional job responsibilities after their babies arrive. And very few take more than 2 weeks off after the birth of their children. But taking that time can help new fathers learn how to parent—and establish their role in a new family—like no other time off can. Parenting experts encourage men to take as much time off after their baby is born as they can—but men often feel that they are making a choice between career advancement and job security and their commitment to their family.")

{true} setModel("IT2_feedback_female", "Adjusting to baby can be hard for a family, and it can help to have another set of hands to burp the baby and change the diapers. And having that extra time with the little one can be enormously rewarding. But many parents in the United States feel pressure to get back to the office right away after a baby is born. Some even feel like they are handed additional job responsibilities after their babies arrive. But taking that time can help new parents learn how to parent—and establish their role in a new family—like no other time off can. Parenting experts encourage taking as much time off after their baby is born as they can—but parents often feel that they are making a choice between career advancement and job security and their commitment to their family.")

Learn More

{model.babyName} has just been released from the hospital and you’re on your way home. Check the Memory Book for a snap of your little one in {model.baby_his_her} going-home onesie.

Now it is time for some practical planning. How much time are you going to have to spend with your little one now that you are home? Are you planning on returning to {model.nonmother_school_work_home}?

As you may recall, you’ve been randomly assigned to a less affluent socio-economic group, so you don’t have a bunch of savings to cover a lot of time off after your baby is born. In the United States, everyone can take advantage of Family Medical Leave to take up to 12 weeks of leave from work. But the catch is that this is not paid leave—but your employer has to keep your job safe for you.

You are lucky in that your employer offers you 8 weeks of leave at 2/3 of your normal salary.

Since you are a student, you can’t take advantage of this leave. You will also need to check in with your professors and let them know about the big event. They’ll have to give you some extra time for those assignments that have come in after the baby arrived. And you will have new hands-on information to share in your human development class!

As you may recall, you’ve been randomly assigned to a mid-range socio-economic group, so you have a bit of savings but not a lot of time off after your baby is born. In the United States, everyone can take advantage of Family Medical Leave to take up to 12 weeks of leave from work. But the catch is that this is not paid leave—but your employer has to keep your job safe for you.

You are lucky in that your employer offers you 8 weeks of leave at 2/3 of your normal salary.

As you may recall, you’re lucky enough to be assigned to a high-income socio-economic group, so you have some choices when it comes to when to take time off for your new baby. In the United States, everyone can take advantage of Family Medical Leave to take up to 12 weeks of leave from work. But the catch is that this is not paid leave—but your employer has to keep your job safe for you.

You are lucky to have some savings—and your employer offers 8 weeks paid paternity leave and gave you 2 weeks off prior to your baby's birth. If you decide to go back to work, your employer has guaranteed to keep your job for you for 6 months after your baby is born.

{model.You_have_partnername_has_cap} just been released from the hospital and you’re on your way home. Check the Memory Book for a snap of your little one in {model.baby_his_her} going-home onesie.

Now it is time for some practical planning. How much time are you going to have to spend with your little one and your partner now that you are home? Are you planning on returning to {model.mother_school_work}?

{model.You_have_partnername_has_cap} just been released from the hospital and you’re on your way home. Check the Memory Book for a snap of your little one in {model.baby_his_her} going-home onesie.

Now it is time for some practical planning. How much time are you going to have to spend with your little one now that you are home? Are you planning on returning to {model.mother_school_work}?

{model.You_have_partnername_has_cap} just been released from the hospital and you’re on your way home. Check the Memory Book for a snap of your little one in {model.baby_his_her} going-home onesie.

Now is the time for some practical planning. How much time are you going to have to spend with {model.babyName} and {model.partnerName} now that you are all home? Will {model.partnerName} return to {model.mother_school_work}? If so, when?

As you may recall, you’ve been randomly assigned to a less affluent socio-economic group, so you don’t have a bunch of savings to cover a lot of time off after your baby is born. In the United States, everyone can take advantage of Family Medical Leave to take up to 12 weeks of leave from work. But the catch is that this is not paid leave—though your employer has to keep your job safe for you.

You are lucky in that {model.your_partners} employer offers {model.you_her} 8 weeks of leave at 2/3 of {model.you_her} normal salary.

You are lucky in that {model.your_partners} employer offers {model.you_her} 8 weeks of leave at 2/3 of {model.you_her} normal salary.

Since you are a student, you can’t take advantage of this leave. You will also need to check in with your professors and let them know about the big event. They’ll have to give you some extra time for those assignments that have come in after the baby arrived. And you will have new hands-on information to share in your human development class!

Since {model.partnerName} is a student, she can’t take advantage of this leave. She will also need to check in with her professors and let them know about the big event. They’ll have to give her some extra time for those assignments that have come in after the baby arrived. And she will have new hands-on information to share in her human development class!

As you may recall, you’ve been randomly assigned to a mid-range socio-economic group, so you have a bit of savings but not a lot of time off after your baby is born. In the United States, everyone can take advantage of Family Medical Leave to take up to 12 weeks of leave from work. But the catch is that this is not paid leave—though your employer has to keep your job safe for you.

You are lucky in that your employer offers you 8 weeks of leave at 2/3 of your normal salary.

You are lucky in that {model.partnerName}'s employer offers her 8 weeks of leave at 2/3 of her normal salary.

As you may recall, you’re lucky enough to be assigned to a high-income socio-economic group, so you have some choices when it comes to when to take time off for your new baby. In the United States, everyone can take advantage of Family Medical Leave to take up to 12 weeks of leave from work. But the catch is that this is not paid leave—though your employer has to keep your job safe for you.

You are lucky to have some savings—and {model.your} employer offers 8 weeks paid maternity leave and gave {model.you_her} 2 weeks off prior to {model.your_her} delivery date. If {model.you_decide_she_decides} to go back to work, {model.your_her} employer has guaranteed to keep {model.your_her} job for {model.you_her} for 6 months after your baby is born.

Since you are a student, you can’t take advantage of this leave. You'll also need to check in with your professors and let them know about the big event. They’ll have to give you some extra time for those assignments that have come in after the baby arrived. And you will have new hands-on information to share in your human development class!

Since {model.partnerName} is a student, she can’t take advantage of this leave. {model.partnerName} also needs to check in with her professors and let them know about the big event. They’ll have to give her some extra time for those assignments that have come in after the baby arrived. And she will have new hands-on information to share in her human development class!

Because you’re a single mom, you’ll have some harder choices to make about how to take care of your baby on your own after you get home.

Because you’re a single dad, you’ll have some harder choices to make about how to take care of your baby on your own after you get home.

{model.partnerName} only has enough accrued time to get 2 days off now that the baby is born. Lucky the baby came over a weekend so you get some extra days! {model.partnerHeSheCap} is due back at work tomorrow.

You only have enough accrued time to get 2 days off now that the baby is born. Lucky the baby came over a weekend so you get some extra days! You are due back at work tomorrow.

{model.babyName} just got released from the hospital and you’re on your way home. Check the Memory Book for a snap of your little one in {model.baby_his_her} going-home onesie.

Now is the time for some practical planning. How much time are you going to have to spend with {model.babyName} and {model.partnerName} now that you are all home? Who is going to look after the baby?

As you may recall, you’ve been randomly assigned to a less affluent socio-economic group, so you don’t have a bunch of savings to cover a lot of time off after your baby is born. In the United States, everyone can take advantage of Family Medical Leave to take up to 12 weeks of leave from work. But the catch is that this is not paid leave—though your employer has to keep your job safe for you.

You have only enough accrued time to get 2 days off now that the baby is born. Lucky the baby came over a weekend so you get some extra days! You are due back at work tomorrow.

{model.partnerName} has only enough accrued time to get 2 days off now that the baby is born. Lucky the baby came over a weekend so {model.partnerHeShe} get some extra days! {model.partnerHeSheCap} is due back at work tomorrow.

As you may recall, you’ve been randomly assigned to a mid-range socio-economic group, so you have a bit of savings but not a lot of time off after your baby is born. In the United States, everyone can take advantage of Family Medical Leave to take up to 12 weeks of leave from work. But the catch is that this is not paid leave—though your employer has to keep your job safe for you.

You have some vacation time in the bank, so you'll be taking an additional 4 weeks off—paid.

{model.partnerName} has some vacation time in the bank, so {model.partnerHeShe}'ll be taking an additional 4 weeks off—paid.

As you may recall, you’re lucky enough to be assigned to a high-income socio-economic group, so you have some choices when it comes to when to take time off for your new baby. In the United States, everyone can take advantage of Family Medical Leave to take up to 12 weeks of leave from work. But the catch is that this is not paid leave—though your employer has to keep your job safe for you.

You are lucky to have some savings—and your employer offers a 3 month paid {model.userLeave} leave. If you decide to go back to work, your employer has guaranteed to keep your job for you for 6 months after your baby is born.

{model.partnerName} is lucky to have some savings—and your employer offers a 3 month paid {model.partnerLeave} leave. If {model.partnerHeShe} decides to go back to work, {model.partnerHisHer} employer has guaranteed to keep {model.partnerHisHer} job for {model.partnerHimHer} for 6 months after your baby is born.

You and {model.partnerName} also need to check in with your professors and let them know about the big event. They’ll have to give you both some extra time for those assignments that have come in after the baby arrived. And you’ll have new hands-on information to share in your human development class!

You’ll also need to check in with your professors and let them know about the big event. They’ll have to give you some extra time for those assignments that have come in after the baby arrived. And you’ll have new hands-on information to share in your human development class!

{model.partnerName} also needs to check in with {model.partnerHisHer} professors and let them know about the big event. They’ll have to give {model.partnerHimHer} some extra time for those assignments that have come in after the baby arrived. And {model.partnerHeShe}’ll have new hands-on information to share in {model.partnerHisHer} human development class!

Explain

Maternity and paternity leave practices vary around the world. The United States offers 12 weeks of maternity or paternity leave under the federal Family Medical Leave Act. Different states may mandate different leave (California leave is especially generous) and employers may cover maternity leave through their disability leave policies. You may hear about generous maternity leave around the world, but most places in the world (with some exceptions) don’t offer much more than three months paid maternity leave for moms. They may offer more than this as partially paid or subsidized leave, however. Paid paternity leave for fathers is still very unusual, with only a few countries like Norway and Kenya offering 2 paid weeks off.

In the United States, few organizations offer paid time off for fathers after the birth of a child. And even at companies with leave policies, few men take advantage of that leave. In a recent study of middle and high-SES men, three-quarters of men took less than a week off after their children were born and 16% took off no time at all. Men seem to feel cultural pressure to stay at work—and many report that they feel that their job responsibilities increase after their baby is born.

Please see this study for more information.

Look Inside

While babies are developing new relationships, their brains and bodies are also growing quickly. This video describes physical and brain development in infancy.

Continue

IT3

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{true} player.setChildAge( "2w" )

{model.r100 > 30} setModel("babyProvider", "pediatrician")

{model.r100 < 31} setModel("babyProvider", "nurse practitioner")

{model.r2 == 0} setModel("babyProvider_he_she", "he")

{model.r2 == 0} setModel("babyProvider_He_She_cap", "He")

{model.r2 == 0} setModel("babyProvider_him_her", "him")

{model.r2 == 1} setModel("babyProvider_he_she", "she")

{model.r2 == 1} setModel("babyProvider_He_She_cap", "She")

{model.r2 == 1} setModel("babyProvider_him_her", "her")

{model.babyProvider == "pediatrician" && model.r2 == 0} setModel("pediatricianName", "Dr. Edward Davis")

{model.babyProvider == "nurse practitioner" && model.r2 == 0} setModel("nursepractitionerName", "Nurse David Wilson")

{model.babyProvider == "nurse practitioner" && model.r2 == 0} setModel("shortbabyProviderName", "Nurse Wilson")

{model.babyProvider == "pediatrician" && model.r2 == 0} setModel("shortbabyProviderName", "Dr. Davis")

{model.babyProvider == "pediatrician" && model.r2 == 1} setModel("pediatricianName", "Dr. Helen Williams")

{model.babyProvider == "nurse practitioner" && model.r2 == 1} setModel("nursepractitionerName", "Nurse Patricia Kim")

{model.babyProvider == "nurse practitioner" && model.r2 == 1} setModel("shortbabyProviderName", "Nurse Kim")

{model.babyProvider == "pediatrician" && model.r2 == 1} setModel("shortbabyProviderName", "Dr. Williams")

{model.babyProvider == "nurse practitioner"} setModel("babyProviderName", model.nursepractitionerName)

{model.babyProvider == "pediatrician"} setModel("babyProviderName", model.pediatricianName)

{true} setModel("user_home8", "")

{true} setModel("partner_home8", "")

{model.new_baby_care == "motherhome8_partnerwork" || model.new_baby_care == "motherhome8_partnerschool" || model.new_baby_care == "motherwork_userhome8" || model.new_baby_care == "motherschool_userhome8" || model.new_baby_care == "gay1home8_gay2work" || model.new_baby_care == "gay1home8_gay2school"} setModel("user_home8", "true")

{model.new_baby_care == "motherhome8_userwork" || model.new_baby_care == "motherhome8_userschool" || model.new_baby_care == "motherwork_partnerhome8" || model.new_baby_care == "motherschool_partnerhome8" || model.new_baby_care == "gay1school_gay2home8" || model.new_baby_care == "gay1work_gay2home8"} setModel("partner_home8", "true")

{true} setModel("fb_e", "That may sound like the more luxurious choice but you may be missing out on some important opportunities to develop a closer relationship with your baby during the night. And if you are breastfeeding, you’ll have to get up and pump overnight even if you aren’t the one providing the hands-on care. You may be missing out on some opportunities to have nighttime bonding with your little one as well!")

{model.userSingleMale == "true" || model.GayMan == "true"} setModel("fb_e", "That may sound like the more luxurious choice but you may be missing out on some important opportunities to develop a closer relationship with your baby during the night. You may be missing out on some opportunities to have nighttime bonding with your little one as well!")

{true} setModel("sent1", "")

{model.Mother == "partner"} setModel("sent1", "There’s nothing wrong with " + model.your_partners + " breastfeeding.")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("sent1", "There’s nothing wrong with the breastmilk you are bottle feeding your baby from your surrogate.")

{model.Mother == "user"} setModel("sent1", "There’s nothing wrong with your breastfeeding.")

Learn More

Of course, {model.babyName} was fast asleep in the baby carrier just as you asked this question of your {model.babyProvider}.

Of course, {model.babyName} had been up in the middle of the night so the {model.babyProvider} could tell even before you said anything that you were curious about sleep patterns.

You are wondering whether {model.babyName}’s waking up in the middle of the night is normal. Is the breastfeeding making {model.baby_him_her} wake up too much in the night?

{model.shortbabyProviderName} is reassuring. {model.sent1} But breastfed babies tend to wake up a bit more during the night. Sadly, they don’t have any magic to help your baby sleep all night long. At least not yet.

You are wondering whether {model.babyName}’s waking up in the middle of the night is normal. Is the kind of formula you are using making {model.baby_him_her} wake up too much in the night?

{model.shortbabyProviderName} is reassuring. There’s nothing wrong with your baby formula. Sadly, they don’t have any magic to help your baby sleep all night long. At least not yet.

Explain

Newborns cannot sleep for several hours without waking due to their immature brains, and they rarely sleep more than 3 hours at a time. Newborns sleep 17 hours a day on average. Sleeping for so much of the day helps newborns double their birthweight in the first 4 months. Parents then begin their long journey to try and schedule and regiment their babys’ sleep patterns, which are ever changing.

In the first few months of life, infants tend to be put to bed later at night than older infants or toddlers, with an average bed time of 9:50 PM. By the time an infant’s sleep is more regular, bed times drop to an average of 8:30 PM for 2-year-olds, and then rise to close to 9:00 PM for 3-year-olds.

Parents of infants report that their children fall asleep faster than parents of toddlers and older children, with just under half reporting their infants need more than 15 minutes to fall asleep. Infants are reported to fall asleep in 5 minutes or less at twice the rate of older children. Children who get the most sleep are also those that fall asleep the fastest.

Infants less than three months of age on average sleep less than 8 hours a night, a number that will increase to an average of 10 hours at 12 months, and then only declines a bit through the toddler years. During that first year, most infants take at least one nap every day—usually 2 or 3—and average 4 hours of naptime each day, a number that declines to 2 hours by the end of toddlerhood. Nearly 40% of infants under the age of two sleep 14 of the 24 hours in each day, while the average 2-year-old sleeps just over 11 hours each day between naps and nighttime sleep.

Even with all the sleep they get during a typical day, infants don’t sleep in large chunks. Seventy percent of children under the age of one wake at least once during the night—a full half waking up 2 or more times—mostly to feed. By the second year, the frequency of nighttime waking is reduced to just under 50% of children, with only 10% waking multiple times. Most parents of toddlers still go to their child to help them get back to sleep even if they aren’t likely to be hungry.

Parents whose infants sleep the least are twice as likely to think their child has a sleep problem. Parents whose infants wake up multiple times each night are three times as likely to think their child has a sleep problem. Unsurprisingly, when parents are asked what they would change about their infant’s sleep behavior, most cite how well their child naps or sleeps at night and the length of time the infant sleeps.

Almost all parents develop a bedtime routine for their infants and toddlers. Bedtime routines include reading to the child and bathing. Feeding is often a part of an infant’s routine, while brushing teeth becomes more common in toddlerhood.

Infants are more likely than toddlers to share a room with their parents—60% to 49%. However, 15% of both groups co-sleep, or share a bed, with their parents. Two-thirds of parents are with their infants when they fall asleep, a number that falls to less than half by toddlerhood. Half of all infants are put to bed after they have fallen asleep. By the age of two, this falls to a quarter of toddlers, and by the age of three about 15% of toddlers are asleep before they are put to bed.

Look Inside

BABY'S HEAD: What’s going on inside baby’s sleepy head? There’s a lot happening there. Sleep is divided up—for babies and for everyone else—into different sleep stages that cycle about every 50 minutes—much more quickly than adults who cycle through similar stages in about 90 minutes. We think of babies’ sleep as happening in several stages:

Stage 1: Drowsiness. Different babies show this in different ways. This baby is yawning. Other babies might rub their eyes, look off into space, or just get fussy. This is a good time to settle down.

Stage 2: Active sleep. This is baby’s REM sleep. REM is a term that refers to “rapid eye movement,” which is what you can see from the outside. It doesn’t quite describe what is going on inside baby’s head. Inside, there is brain activity going on—dreaming. Babies spend more time in REM sleep (50% of their overall sleep) than they will as toddlers (about 30% of sleep) and even toddlers spend more time in REM than do adults, who only spend about 20% of their sleep time in REM sleep. They’re also easy to wake up and startle during active sleep.

Stage 3: Light sleep. You won’t see rapid eye movement here and baby’s overall activity level settles down. No more wiggling eyes and jerking limbs.

Stage 4: Deep sleep. In this phase of sleep, baby might look almost frozen and motionless and will be difficult to wake up. Now may be a good time to cut their nails or trim their hair—they may not even notice what you’re doing.

BABY'S LUNGS: Newborn breathing is a little unusual—particularly at night. You’ll notice that at times during baby’s sleep that they may stop breathing for a time, as if they’ve “missed” a breath or even as long as 10 seconds. At other times, they may breathe rapidly. This is absolutely normal. Babies typically adopt more regular breathing patterns by the time they’re six months old.

BABY'S EYES: Remember what you learned about early infant perception. Their eyesight isn’t fully developed when they arrive home—and they may not be able to make out dim light, which is why it might be okay in the first week or so of their life to turn on a nightlight to do middle of the night diaper changes. But by the time baby is a few months old, they are almost as sensitive to light as an adult, and caregivers should be wary of bright lights—even the light from a phone at night or a television in an adjacent room.

BABY'S EARS: Many new parents swear by sound machines to help cover up ambient noise and help light sleeping babies from being awoken by car alarms, barking dogs, or siblings at play. However, a recent study revealed that many of these sound machines were too loud—some of them at about 85 decibels were as loud as a vacuum cleaner and could cause hearing loss.

Source: Pediatrics Vol. 133 No. 4 April 1, 2014, pp. 677-681. (doi: 10.1542/peds.2013-3617)

Continue

IT4

true

it4

{true} player.setChildAge( "4w" )

Learn More

But today you noticed that {model.babyName} was able to suck on a pacifier that you offered {model.baby_him_her}. Even though {model.babyName} is usually breastfed, {model.baby_he_she} was able to figure out how to adapt {model.baby_his_her} sucking to accommodate a pacifier instead of a nipple. Congratulations on reaching Stage 2—adaptation of reflexes.

But today you noticed that {model.babyName} was sucking on {model.baby_his_her} hand. Even though {model.babyName} is usually breastfed, {model.baby_he_she} was able to figure out how to adapt {model.baby_his_her} sucking to accommodate {model.baby_his_her} hand. Congratulations on reaching Stage 2—adaptation of reflexes.

But today you noticed that wiggling {model.babyName} was able to suck on a pacifier that you offered {model.baby_him_her}. Even though the only thing wiggling {model.babyName} usually has in {model.baby_his_her} mouth is a bottle, {model.baby_he_she} was able to figure out how to adapt {model.baby_his_her} sucking to accommodate a pacifier instead of a plastic nipple. Congratulations on reaching Stage 2—adaptation of reflexes.

But today you noticed that {model.babyName} was was sucking on {model.baby_his_her} hand. Even though the only thing wiggling {model.babyName} usually has in {model.baby_his_her} mouth is a bottle, {model.baby_he_she} was able to figure out how to adapt {model.baby_his_her} sucking to accommodate {model.baby_his_her} hand. Congratulations on reaching Stage 2—adaptation of reflexes.

Table : Your Baby’s Piaget Stages Update

Explain

How can a baby sucking {model.baby_his_her} hand, or pacifier, or a rattle or a blanket be a sign of intelligence? In order to understand how something so easy is a sign of growing coordination between baby’s body and brain, you have to remember how helpless your newborn was at birth. At birth, a baby would suck anything that came close to its mouth—just like it would grasp at anything that was put in its palm, whether your finger or a pencil. But a little later, you’ll notice that baby sucks a bottle a little differently than a pacifier—it knows that milk comes from a bottle and that nothing comes out of its thumb or a pacifier. The newborn can move its mouth a little differently each time—and has the memory of what a bottle or a pacifier looks like and is making choices and decisions consciously about how to move its body. Your baby is no longer just a helpless jumble of reflexes. {model.baby_He_She_cap} is able to recognize and remember things in {model.baby_his_her} environment—and make {model.baby_his_her} body react to different situations in different ways.

And don’t worry—these aren’t baby’s first intelligence tests. If your baby is able to adapt {model.baby_his_her} sucking reflexes to accommodate a variety of objects at 3 weeks or 6 weeks—that doesn’t necessarily mean that {model.baby_he_she} is going to be a super-genius. These early stages aren’t signs of genius—just typical stages most babies go through as they develop.

Look Inside

The formation of connections (synapses) between brain cells is fastest during the prenatal period and early infancy, leading to many more synapses than will be present in the adult brain. The process of creating an excess of synapses in early development is referred to as "exuberant synaptogenesis." Mirror neurons are part of specialized circuits that become active when people see or hear someone perform an action. There is evidence that mirror neurons enable infants to imitate facial expressions of their caregivers within minutes after birth.

Babies’ brains and bodies are growing quickly. This video describes physical and brain development in infancy.

Continue

IT5

true

it5

{true} player.setChildAge( "6w" )

{true} setModel("enrichment", 0)

{true} setModel("IT5_hours_crying", 1.5)

{model.prenatal_care_quality == "bad" && model.stress > 2} setModel("IT5_hours_crying", model.IT5_hours_crying + .5)

{model.babyAgreeablenessScore == "L"} setModel("IT5_hours_crying", model.IT5_hours_crying + .5)

Learn More

Sometimes you think {model.baby_he_she} might be crying on purpose. Or that you’re doing something wrong.

You feel like you’ve gotten unlucky. Your baby seems to cry way more than anyone else’s. You check online and no one else’s baby seems to cry this much.

Explain

Why do babies cry? Most of the time, babies' crying seems to be a signal—they want something from their caregivers—usually something to eat (and babies can eat all the time when they are small) or because they need help getting to sleep or because something is bothering them. At other times, babies seem to cry out of the blue or for no reason at all. It is this crying, which sometimes seems to be inconsolable, that can most bother caregivers.

Babies’ crying seems to develop in a consistent pattern across cultures and different parenting styles. The short story is this: it gets worse before it gets better. There seems to be a peak in crying around 6 to 7 weeks of age, and then babies seem to have an easier time settling down.

Some babies are said to have colic or excessive crying, which is typically described as crying for more than 3 hours a day or more in a baby over 3 weeks and continues for more than 3 weeks. For most babies, this crying will end on its own and is just an awful stage for the baby and its parents to endure. While these babies may seem like they have something physically wrong with them—and gastrointestinal pain is often a suspected culprit—a physical cause can only be found for fewer than 10 percent of these “excessively crying” babies.

Babies tend to cry more when their caregivers are stressed, depressed, or anxious, and when they are born prematurely or with other prenatal stresses. Babies with parents who have what is called proximal parenting, which emphasizes holding and being physically close, tend to cry less in infancy—although these babies still go through a common pattern of a peak of crying at around 7 months. A distal parenting style, which emphasizes face-to-face interaction, play with toys, and talking, tends to be more common in the United States but is less common in more rural cultures around the world.

Researchers have put a lot of effort into figuring out why babies cry and how best to settle them, in part because they care about babies—and no one likes to listen to a fretting baby—but also because inconsolable babies are at greater risk for child abuse and neglect. Babies who cry more than usual—or babies whose crying may be well within the normal range but whose parents feel that they cry too much—tend to put extra stress on families, leading to more parent conflict and parental depression. And these babies are at risk for being abused by their parents—by being shaken or yelled at which, in a few cases every year, can lead to death. Babies in this age group are at the highest risk for being killed by a family member.

Parents differ in terms of how much crying feels like “too much.” For some parents, three hours of crying a day seems tolerable. For others, even 60 minutes a day can feel overwhelming. About one in five parents feels that their baby’s crying is unusual. In any case, parents should have a tool box of ways to soothe their babies—and a support system to help them through the sometimes trying first months of soothing a new baby.

Look Inside

Baby’s brain: Things are rapidly changing inside baby’s brain—one of the reasons researchers suspect babies may have a peak of crying and upset around 6 or 7 months. Inside a crying baby, you’ll find higher levels of the stress hormone cortisol, and as the baby is comforted, levels of the hormone oxytocin may rise, leading to a feeling of attachment to the caregiver.

Baby’s belly: Many parents worry that all this crying may be caused by something going wrong inside baby’s gastrointestinal tract. Maybe the little one just has terrible gas. In fact, prescriptions for anti-reflux medications have risen astronomically over the past few years as more parents and their pediatricians look for a medical answer to baby’s discomfort and upset. And many parents try nutritive-based interventions like a new brand of formula, restricting dairy from the breastfeeding mom’s diet, or special probiotics, in an attempt to soothe baby’s crying. Each of these has been effective in some initial studies, but not enough to be recommended to everyone. Most babies, even those who are said to cry “excessively,” settle down after 8 to 12 weeks.

Baby's larynx: Babies' cries sound different. Specialists and experienced parents learn how to identify cries of fussiness from cries of true pain. And some babies’ cries are particularly high pitched. These should lead to some medical intervention or review—sometimes high-pitched cries can be related to neurological issues that may need further help.

Continue

IT6

true

it6

{true} player.setChildAge( "8w" )

{true} setModel("child_weight_grams", model.childData.weight.kg * 1000)

{true} setModel("child_weight_lbs", model.childData.weight.lbs)

{true} setModel("percentile", model.childData.weight.percentile)

{true} setModel("weight_percentile", model.childData.weight.percentile)

{true} setModel("height_ordinal", model.childData.height.percentileString)

{true} setModel("weight_ordinal", model.childData.weight.percentileString)

Learn More

{model.shortbabyProviderName} asks {model.you_partnername} how breastfeeding is going—and reminds {model.you_her} that {model.you_are} making a healthy choice in providing the best nutrition for your little one.

{model.babyName}’s growth seems to be pretty normal. That's good news!

Your little one doesn’t seem to be growing as quickly as {model.shortbabyProviderName} would like. Make sure you are feeding {model.baby_him_her} on demand—even if that means {model.baby_he_she} wants to eat in the middle of the night.

{model.shortbabyProviderName} wants to discuss your baby’s development with you. {model.babyProvider_He_She_cap} is worried! {model.babyProvider_He_She_cap} suggests that you may want to review some best-practices for soothing your baby.

{model.shortbabyProviderName} has recommended that someone from your local visiting nurse association come to your house and check on how you and your baby are doing. {model.babyProvider_He_She_cap} recommends taking some parenting classes at the local hospital and even seeing a counselor to help with your stress. Remember that the early months are crucial for keeping your baby healthy and establishing a warm relationship with your little one—you don’t want to harm your little {model.babyName}. Your methods for soothing {model.babyName} could lead to problems in the future.

Explain

Immunizations protect against infectious diseases by introducing a small part of the infectious virus into the child’s body and tricking the body’s own immune system into defending itself against it. When the child is subsequently exposed to the “real” virus, the child’s immune system is able to protect itself and fight the infection, so the child doesn’t get sick.

How many kids are vaccinated? The vast majority of children—more than 90 percent—are getting their vaccines. While parents who refuse to vaccinate their children at all seem to get a lot of media attention, very few parents across the country actually make this decision—although around the country there are pockets where unusually high numbers of children are unvaccinated. That said, many more children are undervaccinated—they have had some of their recommended vaccines but not all. Many of these children are below the poverty line and their parents may not be getting them fully vaccinated because of logistical or financial reasons, rather than skepticism about vaccine safety.

What diseases are young children vaccinated against? Children are immunized against a number of diseases many adults have never heard of. Here’s a brief glossary of what small children are typically immunized against:

Hepatitis B: Hepatitis B is a serious viral infection that attacks the liver and can be transmitted through blood or other body fluids. Infants are at particular risk from being infected with chronic hepatitis B, which is why it is so important that they be immunized right away.

Rotavirus: Rotavirus is a common virus that causes severe diarrhea and is commonly spread among children by contaminated toys, bottles or dirty hands. For most people, rotavirus can just be an inconvenience and they recover in a few days. But for about 1 in 70 children, the dehydration caused by rotavirus leads to hospitalization and, in the United States, typically around 30 children died every year from this infection before the introduction of the vaccine. Around the world, about half a million children die every year from rotavirus infections.

Diphtheria: Diphtheria is a bacterial infection most Americans have never heard of except in books and movies from the past. Since the advent of vaccines it has become extremely rare in the United States. There were only a handful of cases in the United States last year. Diphtheria causes a thick mucus on the back of the throat, which makes it difficult to breathe and can cause paralysis or even death. Before the development of the vaccine, about half of the children who got diphtheria died.

Tetanus: Also known as lock-jaw, tetanus is caused by bacteria that live in soil and typically gets into the body via puncture wounds. It is a rare disease—with fewer than 30 people acquiring tetanus every year in the United States—but about one in ten cases are fatal. Remember that adults should also be vaccinated against tetanus—you need a booster shot every 10 years.

Whooping Cough: Also known as pertussis, whooping cough is a respiratory infection. The “whoop” in the name doesn’t refer to the cough, per se—but to the sound children make when they rapidly inhale after a coughing fit. Whooping cough can be very serious in young children—half of infants who get whooping cough end up in the hospital. Rates of whooping cough have increased over the past few years. Children die every year from pertussis—either because they were too young to be fully immunized or because their parents declined the vaccination.

Polio: A few years ago, public health experts hoped that polio, like smallpox, would be eradicated and completely disappear around the world. Unfortunately, there has been a resurgence of polio in some areas of the developing world. Polio is a disease that can cause paralysis or death in infants or children who are exposed to it. In the United States, before the widespread adoption of the vaccine in the 1950s, more than 50,000 children got polio every year and thousands died.

Pneumococcus: Pneumococcus is a bacteria that causes all sorts of infections in children including ear infections, pneumonia and sinus infections. While this vaccination won’t prevent all common ear infections in children, it has reduced the rate of ear and other respiratory infections in children.

Haemophilus influenzae (Hib): Hib causes bacterial meningitis, which is an infection of the tissue that surrounds the brain, and can cause brain damage or death. Before the widespread adoption of the vaccine, Hib caused about 1,000 deaths in children every year.

Look Inside

Ouch! Shots can hurt. Studies have shown that sucking (either breastfeeding or using a bottle) or tasting a sweet solution can help small babies recover more quickly from the discomfort of shots. Some medical providers also recommend over-the-counter medication like Tylenol to help babies with their shots.

Modern medicine has done a tremendous amount to improve the health of small children and babies. This video provides an overview of medical interventions, like clean water and immunizations, that have made babies healthier around the world.

Continue

IT7

true

it7

{true} player.setChildAge( "8w" )

{true} setModel("IT7_preschool_quality", "")

{true} setModel("divorceRiskFactors", 0)

{true} setModel("divorceProtectiveFactors", 0)

{true} setModel("divorceValue", 3)

{true} setModel("IT_divorceRiskFactors", 0)

{true} setModel("parents_are_divorcing", "false")

{model.userAgeValueUpdated < 22} setModel("divorceRiskFactors", model.divorceRiskFactors + 1)

{model.Relationship != "single" && model.partnerAgeValueUpdated < 22} setModel("divorceProtectiveFactors", model.divorceRiskFactors + 1)

{model.SEClass == "L" && (model.userStudent == "true" || model.partnerStudent == "true")} setModel("divorceRiskFactors", model.divorceRiskFactors + 1)

{model.SEClass == "L" && model.userStudent == "false" && model.partnerStudent == "false"} setModel("divorceRiskFactors", model.divorceRiskFactors + 2)

{model.SEClass == "L"} setModel("divorceRiskFactors", model.divorceRiskFactors + 0.5)

{model.userMoodiness > 1.4} setModel("divorceRiskFactors", model.divorceRiskFactors + 1)

{model.Relationship != "single" && model.partnerMoodiness > 1.4} setModel("divorceRiskFactors", model.divorceRiskFactors + 1)

{model.PN3_drinking_status == "mom_drinks_heavily"} setModel("divorceRiskFactors", model.divorceRiskFactors + 1)

{model.PN3_np_drinking_status == "non_mom_drinks_heavily"} setModel("divorceRiskFactors", model.divorceRiskFactors + 1)

{model.pn4a_Q3 == "A" && model.pn4a_Q4 == "A"} setModel("divorceRiskFactors", model.divorceRiskFactors + 1)

{model.pn4b_attach != "secure"} setModel("divorceRiskFactors", model.divorceRiskFactors + 1)

{model.stress > 4} setModel("divorceRiskFactors", model.divorceRiskFactors + 1)

{model.userReligious == 2 || model.userReligious == 2.5} setModel("divorceProtectiveFactors", model.divorceProtectiveFactors + 2)

{model.userReligious == 3} setModel("divorceProtectiveFactors", model.divorceProtectiveFactors + 3)

{model.babyCarefulness > 2} setModel("divorceProtectiveFactors", model.divorceProtectiveFactors + 2)

{model.Relationship == "married"} setModel("divorceProtectiveFactors", model.divorceProtectiveFactors + 2)

{model.stress > 4} setModel("IT_divorceRiskFactors", model.divorceRiskFactors + 1)

{true} setModel("IT_divorceRiskFactors", model.IT_divorceRiskFactors + 2)

{true} setModel("IT_parents_are_divorcing", "false")

{(model.IT_divorceRiskFactors - model.divorceProtectiveFactors) > model.divorceValue} setModel("IT_parents_are_divorcing", "true")

{model.IT_parents_are_divorcing == "true"} setModel("parents_are_divorcing", "true")

{true} setModel("HighConflictRiskFactors", 0)

{true} setModel("HighConflict", "false")

{model.PN3_drinking_status == "mom_drinks_heavily"} setModel("HighConflictRiskFactors", model.HighConflictRiskFactors + 1)

{model.PN3_np_drinking_status == "non_mom_drinks_heavily"} setModel("HighConflictRiskFactors", model.HighConflictRiskFactors + 1)

{model.pn4a_Q3 == "A" && model.pn4a_Q4 == "A"} setModel("HighConflictRiskFactors", model.HighConflictRiskFactors + 1)

{model.pn4b_attach != "secure"} setModel("HighConflictRiskFactors", model.HighConflictRiskFactors + 1)

{model.babyCarefulness < 1.6} setModel("HighConflictRiskFactors", model.HighConflictRiskFactors + 1)

{model.babyAgreeableness < 1.6} setModel("HighConflictRiskFactors", model.HighConflictRiskFactors + 1)

{model.babyAgreeableness < 1.6 && model.babyCarefulness < 1.6} setModel("HighConflictRiskFactors", model.HighConflictRiskFactors + 1)

{model.HighConflictRiskFactors > 2} setModel("HighConflict", "true")

{true} setModel("not_gay_both_parents_work", "false")

{true} setModel("gay_both_parents_work", "false")

{model.new_baby_care == "motherwork_userwork" || model.new_baby_care == "motherwork_partnerwork" || model.new_baby_care == "motherhome8_partnerwork" || model.new_baby_care == "motherwork_partnerhome8" || model.new_baby_care == "motherwork_userhome8" || model.new_baby_care == "motherhome8_userwork" || model.new_baby_care == "motherschool_partnerhome8" || model.new_baby_care == "motherhome8_userschool" || model.new_baby_care == "motherschool_userhome8" || model.new_baby_care == "motherhome8_partnerschool" || model.new_baby_care == "motherwork_partnerschool" || model.new_baby_care == "motherschool_userwork"} setModel("not_gay_both_parents_work", "true")

{model.new_baby_care == "gay1home8_gay2work" || model.new_baby_care == "gay1work_gay2home8" || model.new_baby_care == "gay1work_gay2work" || model.new_baby_care == "gay1home8_gay2school" || model.new_baby_care == "gay1work_gay2school" || model.new_baby_care == "gay1school_gay2home8" || model.new_baby_care == "gay1school_gay2work"} setModel("gay_both_parents_work", "true")

{true} setModel("baby_activity", "")

Learn More

Look Inside

Babies are growing quickly—both inside and out. This video describes physical and brain development in infancy.

Now that your {model.userLeave} leave is coming to an end, you’re going to have to figure out who is going to care for your baby when you go back to {model.user_school_work}.

Now that {model.partnerName}'s {model.partnerLeave} leave is coming to an end, you’re going to have to figure out who is going to care for your baby when {model.partnerName} goes back to {model.partner_school_work}.

{model.userSingleFemale == "false" && model.userSingleMale == "false" && model.r100 < 50} setModel("family_quest", "You are lucky that your parents live nearby. Your mother doesn’t work and would love to take care of your baby while you work.")

{model.userSingleFemale == "false" && model.userSingleMale == "false" && model.r100 > 49} setModel("family_quest", "You are lucky that your partner's parents live nearby. " + model.partnerName + "'s mother doesn’t work and would love to take care of your baby while you work.")

{model.userSingleFemale == "true" || model.userSingleMale == "true"} setModel("family_quest", "You are lucky that your parents live nearby. Your mother doesn’t work and would love to take of your baby while you work.")

{model.userSingleFemale == "false" && model.userSingleMale == "false" } setModel("family_quest_FB", "This is the most common choice for childcare for infants under a year old. About twenty-five percent of babies with working parents are taken care of by a grandparent during the day. This is a wonderful way for your baby to get to know their grandparents better—and a great way for you to save money in childcare. You may want to make sure that the grandparents are up-to-date on contemporary health and safety ideas for babies—things may have changed a bit since they raised you or your partner—and you may want to make sure you are all on the same page so that your little one has consistent parenting.")

{model.userSingleFemale == "true" || model.userSingleMale == "true"} setModel("family_quest_FB", "This is the most common choice for childcare for infants under a year old. About twenty-five percent of babies with working parents are taken care of by a grandparent during the day. This is a wonderful way for your baby to get to know their grandparents better—and a great way for you to save money in childcare. You may want to make sure that the grandparents are up-to-date on contemporary health and safety ideas for babies—things may have changed a bit since they raised you—and you may want to make sure you are all on the same page so that your little one has consistent parenting.")

{true} setModel("family_daycare", "You’ve found a family daycare center in your neighborhood. This is run by a woman who has raised a number of children on her own and has the appropriate state licensing for her center. She has a lot of older children who come after school and just 2 other infants who are with her during the day.")

{true} setModel("family_daycare_FB", "Family, or home-based, daycare often feels more comfortable and affordable for parents than larger daycare centers or preschools. You will want to make sure that any small centers conform to local health and safety standards. You may also want to observe the center to see how the teacher manages the children. Ask how many babies she will care for as a maximum. The NAEYC recommends no more than 4. You may want to avoid centers where the television is blaring—remember that the recommendation is that infants under 2 should have no media exposure at all. And avoid centers where babies aren’t held to be fed but are instead “bottle propped.” You are looking for consistent, warm caregivers and ideally very little staff turnover so your little one can develop close, loving relationships.")

{true} setModel("neighbor", "You’ve found a woman in your neighborhood who watches a few children during the day. She doesn’t have any state licensing but when you went to visit the children looked happy.")

{true} setModel("neighbor_FB", "Informal babysitting or childcare can work out extremely well for families and babies—if the caregiver is good. It often has the advantage of being less expensive than formal centers—but families don’t have any of the safeguards that come with more formal arrangements. You’ll need to do the health and safety check yourself. Check references. Interview other parents. You may also want to observe the center to see how the teacher manages the children. Ask how many babies she will care for as a maximum. The NAEYC recommends no more than 4. You may want to avoid centers where the television is blaring—remember that the recommendation is that infants under 2 should have no media exposure at all. And avoid centers where babies aren’t held to be fed but are instead bottle propped. You are looking for consistent, warm caregivers and ideally very little staff turnover so your little one can develop close, loving relationships.")

{true} setModel("college_daycare", "There is a daycare center attached to the local community college where students train to be early childhood teachers. This center is accredited by the NAEYC and has a ratio of 4 children to every teacher, but is one of the more expensive options.")

{true} setModel("college_daycare_FB", "The daycare centers affiliated with colleges—particularly those that train early childhood educators—can be some of the best sources of childcare! You may want to make sure that you and your family are a good fit with this program, however—and check to make sure about the turnover of teachers. You are looking for consistent, warm caregivers and ideally very little staff turnover so your little one can develop close, loving relationships. You may also want to observe the center to see how the teacher manages the babies. Ask how many babies they will care for as a maximum. The NAEYC recommends no more than 4.")

{true} setModel("church_daycare", "There is a daycare center affiliated with a local church. This daycare center is less expensive than some of the others, but they have a ratio of 5 children to every teacher. And they are open into the evening which makes it flexible for your work schedule.")

{true} setModel("church_daycare_FB", "Sounds like an interesting option. You may want to make sure that you and your family are a good fit with this program. You will want to make sure that any small centers conform to local health and safety standards. You may also want to observe the center to see how the teacher manages the children. Ask how many babies they will care for as a maximum. The NAEYC recommends no more than 4. You may want to avoid centers where the television is blaring—remember that the recommendation is that infants under 2 should have no media exposure at all. And avoid centers where babies aren’t held to be fed but are instead “bottle propped.” Check to make sure about the turnover of teachers. You are looking for consistent, warm caregivers and ideally very little staff turnover so your little one can develop close, loving relationships.")

{true} setModel("hospital_daycare", "There is a daycare center attached to the large teaching hospital in your community. Not only is it accredited by NAEYC, they have a staff to infant ratio of 1 to 3 and teach all children Spanish as well as English and have music lessons twice a week. It is a little more expensive than the others.")

{true} setModel("hospital_daycare_FB", "The daycare centers affiliated with hospitals can be excellent. You may want to make sure that you and your family are a good fit with this program, however—and check to make sure about the turnover of teachers. You are looking for consistent, warm caregivers and ideally very little staff turnover so your little one can develop close, loving relationships. You may also want to observe the center to see how the teacher manages the babies. Ask how many babies they will care for as a maximum. The NAEYC recommends no more than 4.")

{true} setModel("babysitter_daycare", "You’ve found a babysitter who will come to your home and take care of your baby during the day. It is more expensive than daycare.")

{true} setModel("babysitter_daycare_FB", "Having a babysitter or a nanny who can come to your home can be a flexible option for parents—particularly those with changing schedules or long work hours. Many parents also feel more comfortable leaving their little babies in a familiar environment rather than bringing them to someone else’s house or to a center. However, you’ll need to make sure that your babysitter or nanny shares parenting values with you—as well as health and safety guidelines. Remind him or her that your baby shouldn’t have any media or television exposure—and that babies need to be read to every day—even if they seem too little to understand. And infants should be bottle fed by being held—not left on their own in a play pen with the bottle propped up.")

{true} setModel("share_daycare", "You and your partner are going to adjust your work schedules so you can both stay home to take care of your little one. Unfortunately, this will mean that you don’t get to see each other very much! But it means that you’ll both have a chance to take care of your baby and you’ll save money!")

{true} setModel("share_daycare_FB", "About one in six parents make this work. This is a great choice to make sure both parents get lots of hands-on time with the baby—and you are saving a lot of money in childcare costs. The only downside is that both parents will be scrambling in shift work and may not get a lot of time for each other.")

{model.userSingleFemale == "false" && model.userSingleMale == "false" && model.r100 < 50 && model.new_baby_care == "move_in_with_parents"} setModel("family_quest", "You are lucky that your parents live nearby. Your mother doesn’t work and would love to take care of your baby while you work. Since your mother doesn’t work, she is willing to watch the baby and you and " + model.partnerName + " can look for a place to live nearby.")

{model.userSingleFemale == "false" && model.userSingleMale == "false" && model.r100 > 49 && model.new_baby_care == "move_in_with_parents"} setModel("family_quest", "You are lucky that your partner's parents live nearby. " + model.partnerName + "'s mother doesn’t work and would love to take care of your baby while you work. Since your mother doesn’t work, she is willing to watch the baby and you and " + model.partnerName + " can look for a place to live nearby.")

{(model.userSingleFemale == "true" || model.userSingleMale == "false") && model.new_baby_care == "single_parents"} setModel("family_quest", "You are lucky that your parents live nearby. Your mother doesn’t work and would love to take of your baby while you work. Since your mother doesn’t work, she is willing to watch the baby and you can look for a place to live nearby.")

{model.new_baby_care == "move_in_with_parents" || model.new_baby_care != "single_parents"} setModel("OptionH", "You and your partner are going to adjust your schedules so you can move out but take turns caring for " + model.babyName + ". Unfortunately, this will mean that you don’t get to see each other very much! But it means that you’ll both have a chance to take care of your baby and you’ll have a place of your own!")

{model.new_baby_care == "move_in_with_parents" || model.new_baby_care == "single_parents"} setModel("OptionH_FB", "About one in six parents make this work. This is a great choice to make sure both parents get lots of hands-on time with the baby—and you are saving a lot of money in childcare costs. The only downside is that both parents will be scrambling in shift work and may not get a lot of time for each other.")

{model.both_work_part_time == "true"} setModel("OptionH", "Continue working part-time so you can both spend time with the baby and not incur any daycare expenses.")

{model.both_work_part_time == "true"} setModel("OptionH_FB", "About one in six parents make this work. This is a great choice to make sure both parents get lots of hands-on time with the baby—and you are saving a lot of money in childcare costs. The only downside is that both parents will be scrambling in shift work and may not get a lot of time for each other.")

Now that {model.babyName} is 2 months old you have decided to rethink your arrangements. {model.babyName} is old enough to go to daycare which could allow you to move out of your parents’ house.

Now that {model.babyName} is 2 months old you have decided to rethink your arrangements. {model.babyName} is old enough to go to daycare allowing you both to return to work full-time.

{true} setModel("IT7_daycare_quality", "good")

{model.child_care == "family" && model.r100 < 31} setModel("IT7_daycare_quality", "bad")

{model.child_care == "center" && model.r100 < 51} setModel("IT7_daycare_quality", "bad")

{model.child_care == "neighbor" && model.r100 < 31} setModel("IT7_daycare_quality", "bad")

{model.child_care == "babysitter" && model.r100 < 31} setModel("IT7_daycare_quality", "bad")

{model.IT7_daycare_quality != "bad"} setModel("enrichment", model.enrichment + 1)

{model.user_quit_school_work == "true" || model.partner_quit_school_work == "true" || model.new_baby_care == "single_quitwork"} setModel("quit_work_school_para", "You’re not sure that your baby would really benefit from a music class, but what might be good for your baby to be exposed to in this first year of their life while they are staying home with you?")

{(model.GayMan == "true" || model.GayWoman == "true") && model.partner_quit_school_work == "true"} setModel("You_are_partner_is_cap", "Your partner is")

You are one of the about 2 in 5 American parents who stays home with their infant during the first years of their lives. Your friends who have gone back to work and left their small children in daycare or with other care providers are bragging to you about all the special things their children have access to: music classes, special outings to the park, play dates with other babies.

Your partner is one of the about 2 in 5 American parents who stays home with their infant during the first years of their lives. Your friends who have gone back to work and left their small children in daycare or with other care providers are bragging to you about all the special things their children have access to: music classes, special outings to the park, play dates with other babies.

Explain

In about 60 percent of families with babies under a year old, both the parents work and have to search for childcare for their little ones.

Mothers who stay at home to take care of their little babies tend to be less educated than working mothers. Perhaps some of them are staying home because it is just more cost effective to stay home rather than paying for pricey childcare.

Continue

IT8

true

it8

{true} player.setChildAge( "16w" )

Learn More

You still feel lucky that you have a baby who doesn’t seem hard to soothe or is a big crier. {model.babyName} is active and wiggles like a worm. {model.baby_He_She_cap} loves new people and didn’t even act afraid of the neighbor’s Labrador Retriever. It is a relief that {model.baby_he_she} is happy most of the time. {model.baby_He_She_cap} seems very curious and loves new toys and other stimuli.

You feel lucky that you have a baby who isn’t hard to soothe most of the time. {model.babyName} is pretty active, but from time to time just seems content to play on {model.baby_his_her} playmat. {model.baby_He_She_cap} seems wary of new people and is frightened by the neighbor’s Labrador Retriever. It is a relief that {model.baby_he_she} is happy the rest of the time. {model.baby_He_She_cap} seems content with the regular routine, but you are sure you see a sparkle in {model.baby_his_her} eye when you give {model.baby_him_her} a new toy.

You are so grateful that little {model.babyName} is smiling now—there are some nice times now between the two of you. And {model.baby_he_she} has gotten much easier to soothe now—but you worry that {model.baby_he_she} is a little fussier than other babies. {model.baby_He_She_cap} seems content to just batting the mobile on the bouncy seat. {model.baby_He_She_cap} generally cries when you introduce {model.baby_him_her} to new people. {model.babyName} seems to get annoyed by any change in the routine and will cry readily when startled.

Explain

Researchers believe that part of our personalities may be something we are born with—and they call this our temperament. Back in the 1950s, Stella Thomas and Alexander Chess (who you can see interviewed in the Learn More), came up with three categories of early temperament: easy, slow-to-warm up, and difficult. Since then, researchers have refined the dimensions of temperament, focusing on different aspects including reactivity, fearfulness, attention span, and activity level. In this event, we’re just focusing on a subset of the most frequently studied aspects of temperament.

Most researchers believe that temperament is mostly genetic in origin—although the prenatal environment seems also to have an influence, mostly if the mother has significant stress or depression, which seems to lead to increased sensitivity in the baby. So in this simulation, your baby’s temperament is made up from an amalgam of your and your partner’s personality scores—with a dose of random added in to make things interesting.

There is not a completely causal relationship between infant temperament and adult personality—the environment can change what may have been a shy and sensitive child into a slightly more outgoing adult. But early temperament does seem to exert a lifelong influence.

Researchers tend to emphasize “goodness of fit” between parents’ personalities and a child’s temperament. For example, a highly active child may end up upset if he or she doesn’t have space or time for lots of physical play. A shy child may become even shyer and more resistant if they are faced with lots of new situations and people. Part of parenting is finding the right balance between your child’s temperament and the world around it.

Look Inside

Differences in temperament (e.g., reactivity and self regulation) can be seen early in the first year, and this is part of the baby's early personality. Temperamental differences in reactions to novel events (e.g., curiosity or distress) seem to be rooted in the brain systems that control emotions, such as the limbic system, especially the amygdala, and the frontal cortex.

Babies also begin to show genuine "social smiles" in response to smiles from caregivers between 2 and 3 months. These changes are due in part to the maturation of the occipital lobe of the cortex, a region of the brain crucial for processing visual information.

Review what we know about the development of temperament in infancy. How much is genetic and how much is caused by the environment?

IT_DIVORCE

true

it_divorce

Learn More

You didn’t want to think this day would come. You’d always thought in the back of your mind that maybe one day things would end in wedding bells, but things have been difficult for the past few months between you and {model.partnerName}. You are breaking up. {model.partnerName} is going to move into an apartment nearby.

You can read more about the risk factors for separation and divorce in the Explain and Learn More—think about what might have contributed to this situation.

{model.babyName} is just {model.childData.age.years} years old. About {model.divorceRate} separate or divorce among kids’ {model.baby_his_her} age.

You didn’t want to think this day would come. When you got married you thought it was forever. But things have been difficult for the past few months between you and {model.partnerName}. You are breaking up. {model.partnerName} is going to move into an apartment nearby.

You can read more about the risk factors for separation and divorce in the Explain and Learn More—think about what might have contributed to this situation.

{model.babyName} is just {model.childData.age.years} years old. About {model.divorceRate} separate or divorce among kids’ {model.baby_his_her} age.

{model.babyName}’s best friend’s parents are breaking up. You were shocked to hear it, but you heard that they just haven’t been getting along and that they are moving into separate apartments. To read more about the risk factors for separation and divorce in the Explain and Learn More articles.

This child is just the same age as {model.babyName}. About {model.divorceRate} separate or divorce among kids’ {model.baby_his_her} age.

Your best friend is breaking up with {model.user_his_her} partner. You were shocked to hear it, but {model.user_he_she} tells you that they just hadn’t been getting along and that they are moving into separate apartments. {model.user_he_she_cap} has a son your child’s age. To read more about the risk factors for separation and divorce in the Explain and Learn More articles.

This child is just the same age as {model.babyName}. About {model.divorceRate} separate or divorce among kids’ {model.baby_his_her} age.

Explain

Children, particularly young children, often undergo family transitions. As you’ll see in the chart, fewer than half of all children live in married, two-parent households. And almost 3 out of 10 children undergo a family transition before they start kindergarten.

While every romantic break-up is different in its own way, researchers have identified some common risk and protective factors for separation and divorce. We’ll separate these characteristics by context, couple characteristics and individual characteristics.

Risk Factors for relationship instability

• Context:
  • Living in a stressful environment, including struggling financially can raise the risk of separation.
• Couple:
  • Every couple has disagreements, but having a pattern of volatile, hostile interactions increases the risk of breaking up.
  • As you’ll see in the figure below, getting together when you are younger—like under 22—or much older (like after 40) are also risk factors for breaking up.
  • In the United States, cohabiting (or living together) rather than being legally married seems to be associated with higher chance of breaking up.
• Individual:
  • Having a personal history of exposure to separation and divorce in your own family can make it easier for parents to contemplate breaking up.
  • Having a personality that is less conscientious or easy to get along with also increases the risk of separation or divorce.
  • A history of secure attachment styles with your own parents also makes it less likely that you will experience a separation or divorce.

Protective Factors for relationship stability

• Cultural, community or religious beliefs that prohibit or discourage divorce or separation make it much less likely that you will separate. This doesn’t necessarily mean that your relationships will be happier (although some research does indicate that this may be the case in some families), but that you will stick it out.
• Higher education. For some reason, the more education you have, the less likely you are to break up. This could be because people with more education tend to have higher incomes or that people who stick it out through college are more likely to commit to a marriage for the long term.

Separation and divorce inevitably cause some stresses in a family. From having to move, to changes in routines, changing parental relationships can be difficult on parents and children. In the short-term children who are undergoing family turmoil can be more depressed, do worse in school and feel badly about themselves. Families can be under particular stress if the break-up causes financial strain, as is often the case, as families try and provide for two households on an income that used to provide for just one. And in breakups with ongoing major conflict (estimated to be less than 20 percent), the continuing emotional and legal battles can be devastating for the entire family—and have long term repercussions for everyone’s happiness and mental health.

In the long term, parents can do a great deal to buffer children from the stresses of divorce or separation. Continuing to have a close, warm, authoritative parenting style and being able to focus on children’s needs—rather than the stresses of parents—seems to help children thrive and grow after a divorce. If parents are able to manage the separation well, most children seem to be able to do just as well as other children into adulthood.

What should happen to children after separation or divorce? Children benefit from ongoing, multiple attachments with parents and parent-figures, whether biological, adoptive or step-parents. In most cases, a shared parenting situation—including substantial time with both parents (including overnights) seems to work best for children—allowing them to create meaningful ongoing relationships with both parents (Warshak et al, 2014).

However, not all parenting and family situations are ideal. The vast majority of divorces end up to be fairly neutral or even friendly after the initial stress of the separation—but some remain profoundly conflictual. In other families, one or both of the parents may be struggling with mental health or substance abuse challenges. In some there may have been abuse or domestic violence. In other families, one of the parents may not have had any meaningful contact with the child—and may not have even cohabitated with the child before the official, legal separation. In these cases, what is best for children is not always clear. While children benefit from ongoing attachment relationships with all their parents—their emotional and physical safety is also critical. Building relationships that may have been damaged takes time and avoiding a perpetuation of significant parental conflict is also helpful for the ongoing health of the entire family unit. In situations like these, there are rarely easy answers—and very often there are not enough legal, financial or emotional resources to help these families through what can be lengthy and trying times.

In general, kids seem to do better with fewer transitions. However, particularly for young children, like infants and toddlers under 3, it is important to have frequent contact—if parents can only see their children once a week or on weekends, it is often not frequent enough to sustain a relationship. Longer visits allow children and parents time to get used to each other.

Continue

IT9

true

it9

{true} player.setChildAge( "6m" )

Learn More

Look Inside

Sitting without support occurs as strength-to-weight ratio improves, freeing the hands for exploration of objects, and allowing the infant more opportunities for visually scanning the environment.

Review what we know about the development of our big body motor skills in infancy and toddlerhood.

Explain

Parents tend to worry a lot about whether their children are reaching their milestones in the right time frame. Researchers call the big milestones of childhood—the ones parents worry most about like sitting, crawling and walking – gross motor milestones. In this case, “gross” doesn’t mean disgusting—it is from the use of Latin in medical terminology and here means large, in contrast to fine, or small, motor milestones, which are smaller movements, those you do with your hands like grasping, drawing and feeding.

A few children are significantly delayed in reaching their motor milestones—but this is relatively rare, occurring mostly in children with significant neurological problems, like cerebral palsy, Down Syndrome or more specific motor skill disorders. In the United States, the disorder most parents worry about is autism spectrum disorder (or ASD). While children with this disorder have variable symptoms, most of them reach their gross motor milestones within normal limits.

Children around the world reach their motor milestones in roughly the same order—moving from holding up their heads, to rolling over, to sitting and then to moving around on their own. But there are variations between cultures too—in some cultures it is normal for babies as young as 10 months old to be walking on their own and in others it is typical for children not to walk until they are 13 months old. By and large, the key difference between the two groups is the amount of practice and touch babies receive. In cultures where these motor milestones are earlier, babies tend to get a lot of practice walking, a lot of touch and ample opportunity to try out their developing skills. Some of the videos available in the Learn More will allow you to see this for yourself.

Within a single culture, there are also differences in the timing of these milestone. Some children are earlier or later in reaching them than others—and even the order in which they do so often varies. Some children don’t roll or crawl at all. But most children go through these major milestones in about the same order and about the same time. In general, children who get more opportunity and practice in their motor milestones reach them a bit sooner. For example, children who grow up in a home with stairs will learn how to walk up stairs earlier than those who live in apartment buildings with elevators or one-story homes. But whether they are the first on their block or the last, all the children will learn to get up those stairs.

Continue

IT10

true

it10

{true} player.setChildAge( "8m" )

{model.SEClass == "U"} setModel("num_words_spoken_to_child", 20000)

{model.SEClass == "M"} setModel("num_words_spoken_to_child", 10000)

{model.SEClass == "L"} setModel("num_words_spoken_to_child", 3000)

{model.neglectful > 0} setModel("num_words_spoken_to_child", 3000)

{true} setModel("increase_language", "")

{model.SEClass == "U"} setModel("num_words_spoken_to_child", model.num_words_spoken_to_child * (1.0 + model.r5 * .01))

{model.SEClass == "U" && model.attachment > 0 && model.userVerbalSkills == 1} setModel("num_words_spoken_to_child", model.num_words_spoken_to_child * .8)

{model.SEClass == "U" && model.attachment > 0 && model.partnerVerbalSkills == 1} setModel("num_words_spoken_to_child", model.num_words_spoken_to_child * .9)

{model.SEClass == "U" && model.IT7_daycare_quality == "bad"} setModel("num_words_spoken_to_child", model.num_words_spoken_to_child * .9)

{model.SEClass != "U" && model.userVerbalSkills > 2} setModel("num_words_spoken_to_child", 20000)

{model.SEClass == "M" && model.IT7_preschool_quality == "good"} setModel("num_words_spoken_to_child", model.num_words_spoken_to_child * 1.1)

{model.SEClass == "M" && model.IT7_preschool_quality == "bad"} setModel("num_words_spoken_to_child", model.num_words_spoken_to_child * .9)

{model.SEClass == "M" && model.userVerbalSkills > 2 && model.stress > 3} setModel("num_words_spoken_to_child", model.num_words_spoken_to_child * .85)

{model.SEClass == "L" && model.userVerbalSkills > 2} setModel("num_words_spoken_to_child", 20000*0.9)

{model.SEClass == "L" && model.IT7_preschool_quality == "good"} setModel("num_words_spoken_to_child", model.num_words_spoken_to_child * 1.1)

{model.SEClass == "L" && model.IT7_preschool_quality == "bad"} setModel("num_words_spoken_to_child", model.num_words_spoken_to_child * .9)

{true} setModel("r75", Math.floor(Math.random()*75))

{true} setModel("num_words_spoken_to_child", model.num_words_spoken_to_child + model.r75)

{true} setModel("num_words_spoken_to_child_with_commas", numberWithCommas())

{true} setModel("talk_to_child", "average")

{model.num_words_spoken_to_child > 19999} setModel("talk_to_child", "high")

{model.num_words_spoken_to_child < 10001} setModel("talk_to_child", "low")

{true} setModel("child_vocabulary", "")

{model.talk_to_child == "high"} setModel("child_vocabulary", "high")

{model.talk_to_child == "average"} setModel("child_vocabulary", "average")

{model.talk_to_child == "low"} setModel("child_vocabulary", "low")

Learn More

Look Inside

As brains and bodies develop, babies are increasingly able to communicate. These videos will help you review what we know about brain development and the development of language in infancy and toddlerhood.

Developmental scientist Debra Mills recorded and analyzed the brain-wave patterns of an infant who listened as a puppet recited words, both familiar and unfamiliar. This laboratory scene is captured in this video along with Mills’ discussing ERP (Event-Related Potentials) research, in particular research related to changes in brain organization (especially cerebral lateralization of language) that occur as children acquire language.

This video discusses language development in early infancy. It includes a review and timeline of speech development along with theories of language acquisition.

How little {model.babyName} has grown! In just the past couple of months, {model.baby_he_she}’s moved from crying to babbling all the time. Click below to hear a sample! And just the other day, you thought you heard "Mama"—it sounded something like this.

How little {model.babyName} has grown! In just the past couple of months, {model.baby_he_she}’s moved from crying to babbling all the time. Click below to hear a sample! And just the other day, you thought you heard "Daddy"—it sounded something like this.

And it doesn’t bother you that they’re offering to pay you $50 cash for your time!

Keep up the good work. You’re clearly talking to your baby a lot during the day. Remember that you want to continue this—make your talk interactive, keep introducing your baby to new vocabulary words, and don’t be afraid of talking to {model.baby_him_her} in long sentences. Reading together is a great way to make time to talk. Research has found that the amount of talk babies hear seems to directly influence how verbal babies end up being—and even how successful they are in school. Your baby is on the right track!

Your baby is hearing some language every day—but they would benefit from hearing a lot more! Research has found that the amount of talk babies hear—particularly the language directed at them—seems to directly influence how verbal babies end up being and even how successful they are in school. Even though {model.baby_he_she} may not seem to get everything you are saying—having “conversation” with your baby is one of the best things you can do to help your baby.

Your baby needs to hear a lot more language every day from you and from everyone around {model.baby_him_her}. Research has found that the amount of talk babies hear—particularly the language directed at them—seems to directly influence how verbal babies end up being and even how successful they are in school. Even though {model.baby_he_she} may not seem to get everything you are saying—having “conversation” with your baby is one of the best things you can do to help your baby.

Explain

Research has found that the amount of talk babies hear seems to directly influence how verbal babies end up being—and even how successful they are in school. Talkative parents seem to have more talkative babies. And by the time a baby is 3 years old, there are substantial differences in how much language a baby has heard. Babies who hear fewer words spoken end up speaking fewer words as toddler and preschoolers—and this ends up hurting them later on, when they don’t perform as well at school.

Babies also learn speech better when they hear words that are directed to them—rather than just overhearing language (either in real life or on the television) around them. The more adults talk to babies the more positive and complex their talk becomes. Parents who say just a few words to their children every hour tend to focus on the negative (Don’t pull out that plug! Don’t dump that on the floor!) rather than more encouraging, fun and positive talk.

In recent research, there tends to be a strong relationship between socio-economic status (SES) and the amount of language children hear. Parents with more education and more income tend to talk more to their children—although verbal parents of all incomes tend to talk more to their children. And the children who hear more language tend to produce more language later on in life.

Right now, your baby is just babbling and may have a few words but in the next few months their vocabulary is going to explode! The more you talk to them now, the more words you’ll hear in the months to come.

It is hard to measure how many words a child actually uses in any given day, week or month, particularly because babies may say one word and never repeat it again. And some babies are just shy—making it hard to assess in an office setting how many words they actually are capable of. Many pediatricians and speech therapists now avoid talking about specific numbers of words that babies can, or have used, and focus more on the breadth of their vocabularies and whether they are able to make themselves understood.

In this data from a somewhat controversial study by Hart and Risley (1987), researchers counted how many words babies used by observing them every month and created a measure of their cumulative vocabulary. Notice that they saw dramatically larger vocabularies among professional parents than among less affluent families. Kids who have large vocabularies tend to do better in kindergarten—and these strengths seem to stick with them as they move through school—so many interventions are planned with younger kids, particularly from poorer backgrounds, to help them become more verbal at earlier ages.

Continue

IT11

true

it11

{true} player.setChildAge( "9m" );

Look Inside

Review what we understand about cognitive development in infancy. This video discusses Piaget’s Sensorimotor stage in infancy and toddlerhood and includes discussion of topics such as circular reactions, and formation of mental representations.

Learn More

Baby Avatar will load here.

Now that {model.babyName} is {model.childData.age.months} months old, {model.baby_he_she} is so fun! Just this morning you were playing 'Peek-a-boo' with {model.babyName}. You placed a small blanket over your face and asked, 'Where’s mommy?' The first time you played this game, you helped {model.baby_him_her} pull the blanket away saying: 'Here I am!' The second time, {model.babyName} quickly pulls the blanket away, laughing as {model.baby_he_she} finds you.

Now that {model.babyName} is {model.childData.age.months} months old, {model.baby_he_she} is so fun! Just this morning you were playing 'Peek-a-boo' with {model.babyName}. You placed a small blanket over your face and asked, 'Where’s daddy?' The first time you played this game, you helped {model.baby_him_her} pull the blanket away saying: 'Here I am!' The second time, {model.babyName} quickly pulls the blanket away, laughing as {model.baby_he_she} finds you.

Table : Your Baby’s Piaget Stages Update

Explain

In six months, baby has come a long way! Even at 3 months, your baby would smile when tickled or laugh if you made a funny face—but they wouldn’t have suggested that you play a game together. In 6 months, your baby has made gains in three important areas.

Babies now have important motor coordination—they can actually pick up objects that they want and move them around.

Babies also have learned important things about how the world works—in Piaget’s Stage 3 they learned the connection between an event and its consequence—like pushing in the button on the television will turn the set on. They have learned that some actions have reactions. And in Stage 4, they can start making a plan—giving you a blanket to play a game with or pointing to a light switch to see if you’ll let them switch it on and off.

Babies also have improved their memory and their sense of what is called object permanence. The best way to distract a three-month-old from an object they shouldn’t touch (a cup of hot coffee) is to hide it out of their eye sight. For a tiny baby, out of sight is truly out of mind. But as babies grow older, they realize that objects don’t disappear when they’re put out of view—just like you don’t really disappear when the blanket is over your head. By the time babies are in Stage 4, they are able to try and get an object back after it has been hidden. Putting that hot cup of coffee behind a cereal box on the table will no longer work—they might try and push the cereal box out of view to get at what’s behind it. But on the other hand, you now have the fun of peek-a-boo.

Continue

IT12

true

it12

{true} player.setChildAge( "6m" )

{true} setModel("child_weight_grams", model.childData.weight.kg * 1000)

{true} setModel("child_weight_lbs", model.childData.weight.lbs)

{true} setModel("curveWeightLengthBMI", "wtinf")

{model.baby_boy_girl == "boy"} setModel("genderNumber", 1)

{model.baby_boy_girl == "girl"} setModel("genderNumber", 2)

{true} setModel("do_you_does_your_surrogate", "do you")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("do_you_does_your_surrogate", "does your surrogate")

Learn More

Look Inside

Review what we know about the impact of what we eat on our health in infancy.

Little {model.babyName} is looking a bit small. {model.shortbabyProviderName} worries that {model.baby_he_she} may not be eating enough. {model.babyProvider_He_She_cap} suggests you try and feed {model.babyName} more frequently.

Little {model.babyName} is big for {model.baby_his_her} age! This happens sometimes with babies who are exclusively breastfed. The typical baby charts are based on formula-fed babies who tend to be a bit smaller.

Little {model.babyName} is big for {model.baby_his_her} age! {model.shortbabyProviderName} worries that {model.baby_he_she} might be overweight. {model.babyProvider_He_She_cap} suggests making sure that you:

• Don’t use bottles as a source of comfort. If you allow your baby to keep a bottle with {model.baby_him_her}, {model.baby_he_she} may be drinking to soothe {model.baby_him_her}self, rather than just drinking it when {model.baby_he_she}’s really hungry.
• Don’t force your baby to eat. If {model.baby_he_she} turns {model.baby_his_her} head when you’re feeding {model.baby_him_her} or refuses to finish a bottle, just allow the food to go to waste. Don’t get {model.baby_him_her} into the habit of eating when {model.baby_he_she}’s already full.
• Don’t give your baby sweets or soda. {model.baby_He_She_cap} is too little for candy or sugary foods and these can just add calories—and pounds!

Looks like {model.babyName} is “just right.” {model.baby_He_She_cap} is growing up so fast!

{true} setModel("breastfeed1", "")

{model.Mother == "user" || model.Mother == "partner"} setModel("breastfeed1", model.shortbabyProviderName + " asks you how long " + model.you_are_partner_is + " planning on continuing to breastfeed. " + model.babyProvider_He_She_cap + " suggests that you start supplementing with some food right away—starting with some basic rice cereal and pureed fruits and vegetables. But it is okay to continue to breastfeed as long as " + model.you_choose + " to.")

{model.Mother == "donor"} setModel("breastfeed1", model.shortbabyProviderName + " asks you how long your are planning to bottle feed your baby " + model.donorName + "'s breastmilk. " + model.babyProvider_He_She_cap + " suggests that you start supplementing with some food right away—starting with some basic rice cereal and pureed fruits and vegetables. But it is okay to continue to bottlefeed as long as " + model.you_choose + " to.")

{model.breastfeed1}

Most pediatricians recommend adding solids to a bottle-fed baby’s diet at around 4 or 6 months of age. You’re looking to see if {model.babyName} is ready to eat—are they interested in food? ({model.baby_He_She_cap} certainly was interested in pizza!) Typically if a baby is over about 4 months old and they’re interested, it’s time to add some spice to their life.

Explain

Medical associations seem to agree that breastfeeding until 12 months to 2 years is in the best health interests of babies. The World Health Organization recommends breastfeeding until age 2 and longer if the mother and baby want it. And the American Pediatric Association recommends breastfeeding until at least 12 months of age, or longer if that is what the mother and child want.

Both bottle and breastfed babies move to a diet that includes solid foods at around four to six months. Experts advise making sure that babies have a variety of foods—and lots of healthy fruits and vegetables—as they are not only growing but also learning how to enjoy different tastes and textures. Babies with experience eating many different foods—and lots of healthy ones—in the first year of life, typically are more open to a varied and healthy diet later in life and also may be less at risk for being overweight.

Continue

IT13

true

it13

{true} player.setChildAge( "18m" )

{true} setModel("partnerAgeValueUpdated", model.partnerAgeValue + 1.5)

{true} setModel("userAgeValueUpdated", model.userAgeValue + 1.5)

Look Inside

What’s going on inside baby’s brain as he or she melts down in the grocery store check-out line? Review what we know about emotional and brain development in infancy and toddlerhood.

Learn More

It’s bedtime and {model.babyName}’s favorite blanket, “Blankie,” is in the wash. You offer {model.baby_him_her} a different one hoping that {model.baby_he_she} will not notice the difference. Unfortunately, {model.babyName} does notice and becomes unhappy.

It starts with a scream, and then {model.baby_he_she} falls on the floor, {model.baby_his_her} legs stiff, arms hitting out into the air, kicking. As you approach to pick {model.babyName} up, {model.baby_he_she} arches {model.baby_his_her} back and stiffens {model.baby_his_her} legs.

You are in the checkout line at the grocery store after a long day. And of course this is the day that {model.babyName} notices that there are bags of candy stacked up just in arm’s reach at the check-out line.

{model.baby_He_She_cap} is not happy when you say “No.” {model.baby_He_She_cap} starts to scream. Loud enough so that not only the other people in line but the people in the parking lot can hear {model.baby_him_her}. {model.baby_He_She_cap} reaches for a bag of candy and throws it square at you. As you reach to grab the candy, {model.baby_he_she} kicks at you.

You are in the checkout line at the grocery store after a long day. And of course this is the day that {model.babyName} notices that there are bags of toys stacked up just in arm’s reach at the check-out line.

{model.baby_He_She_cap} is not happy when you say “No.” {model.baby_He_She_cap} starts to scream. Loud enough so that not only the other people in line but the people in the parking lot can hear {model.baby_him_her}. {model.baby_He_She_cap} reaches for a toy and throws it square at you. As you reach to grab the toy, {model.baby_he_she} kicks at you.

It seems like it was just yesterday that {model.babyName} was so easy to soothe and distract. Now you’re starting to be sure you’re getting a preview of the Terrible Twos. This definitely looks like the start of a tantrum.

Even when {model.babyName} was small infant, you found it hard to figure out how to soothe {model.baby_him_her}, but since {model.baby_he_she}'s gotten bigger, that job hasn’t gotten much easier. This seems like the Terrible Twos are going to be quite a handful. This definitely looks like the start of a tantrum.

Explain

What’s going on with your sweet child? Nothing out of the ordinary. Between 18 months and 4 years, the vast majority of children will have some tantrums or meltdowns. Most children have tantrums a few times a week that last less than 5 minutes and most children seem to outgrow them by the time they’re 4.

Parents should worry if their child regularly has tantrums more than 3 times a day, tantrums that last more than 15 minutes each time, keep happening in 5 year olds or have tantrums that seem to occur “out of the blue” or without cause. These can be early signs that something is going wrong with the child or the parent or the combination between the two—and with some help and support they can get better and help reduce the risk of later behavior problems. It is difficult to have a tantruming, 30 pound 2-year-old but a tantruming, 50 pound 7-year-old is much harder to manage.

Conflict between parents and caregivers and toddlers seems to happen all the time. In some studies, it can happen as often as 10 times an hour as children push limits of what they can do (Can I put that block down the toilet? Can I open the car door with this fork?) and adults try to keep them safe and within limits of manageable behavior. Tantrums can happen when there is a disconnect between what a child wants and what the adult wants: the child is interrupted in the middle of something they’d rather be doing; they’re prevented from doing something they want; the child isn’t doing something they are supposed to; or a parent does something to a child they don’t like (like putting them in a car seat). Typically, there is increased risk of everyday conflict turning into a tantrum if there are other stressors present: the child is sick, tired, hungry or stressed—or if the parent is overwhelmed.

Parents and caregivers around the world see an increase in conflict around 18 months, perhaps caused by a number of factors: 1) an increase in the child’s abilities to get into tough spots now that they are both mobile and goal directed; 2) an increase in the child’s ability to regulate their emotions which leads to greater adult expectations—but this ability is still irregular and immature; 3) limited communication and language ability that makes it difficult for children to articulate themselves and get what they want; 4) changing soothing patterns—toddlers are no longer using bottles, pacifiers or swaddling to soothe themselves but they haven’t yet developed effective new ways to calm themselves; 5) brain development has allowed for improved memory and language skills but impulse control (controlled in the brain as part of executive function and the development of more neural connections in the frontal cortex) lags behind.

Some children are at the extreme end in terms of tantruming. About 5 percent hold their breath during tantrums and can even turn blue. Children who have a lot of tantrums and who tantrum until older ages have higher risk for childhood psychological disorders, including ADHD, conduct disorders or even some communication and cognitive disorders. There seem to be parenting factors—like depressed or substance abusing parents or parents with the belief that children are more capable or willful than they are—that may lead to increased tantrums.

Caregivers are advised to try and prevent tantrums as much as they can—it is a habit which can lead to more stress in a family. Warm parenting—a lot of attention, touch and positive talk along with consistent limits—is helpful. Before frustration becomes a meltdown, adults can try to distract or redirect the child ("Why don’t we watch a YouTube on puppies instead") or offer consequences, taking away something the child wants ("No more videos of puppies if you can’t pull it together"). Articulating a child’s feelings and allowing him or her to feel understood can diffuse a tantrum (for example, "I know you are really upset that we don’t have your favorite blanket" or "You must feel super frustrated that I won’t give you any candy right now."). But once a tantrum has started, there isn’t very much an adult can do to help it before it has run its course. Typically during the “angry” phase in the beginning of a tantrum, talking isn’t very helpful and can just escalate the child’s frustration. Make sure the child is in a safe, soft place (tantruming in a grocery cart can lead to a fall, for example) and wait it out. Once you are in the whimpering, crying phase, you have an opportunity to offer comfort. Remember, terrible as they are, most of these episodes resolve in less than 5 minutes and frequently in less than 60 seconds.

Continue

IT14

true

it14

{true} player.setChildAge( "20m" )

{true} setModel("baby_secure", "true")

{true} setModel("insecure_avoidant", "false")

{true} setModel("insecure_avoidant_tally", 0.0)

{true} setModel("insecure_ambivalent", "false")

{true} setModel("insecure_ambivalent_tally", 0.0)

{true} setModel("insecure_attachment", "false")

{model.babyAgreeableness < 1.51} setModel("insecure_avoidant_tally", model.insecure_avoidant_tally - 1.0)

{model.babyMoodiness > 2.49} setModel("insecure_avoidant_tally", model.insecure_avoidant_tally - 1.0)

{model.babyCarefulness < 1.51} setModel("insecure_avoidant_tally", model.insecure_avoidant_tally - 1.0)

{true} setModel("insecure_avoidant_tally", model.insecure_avoidant_tally + model.parenting_score)

{model.insecure_avoidant_tally < -6.9} setModel("insecure_avoidant", "true")

{model.insecure_avoidant == "true"} setModel("insecure_attachment", "true")

{model.babyAgreeableness < 1.51} setModel("insecure_ambivalent_tally", model.insecure_ambivalent_tally - 1.0)

{model.babyMoodiness > 2.49} setModel("insecure_ambivalent_tally", model.insecure_ambivalent_tally - 1.0)

{model.babyCarefulness < 1.51} setModel("insecure_ambivalent_tally", model.insecure_ambivalent_tally - 1.0)

{true} setModel("insecure_ambivalent_tally", model.insecure_ambivalent_tally + model.parenting_score/2.0)

{true} setModel("insecure_ambivalent_tally", model.insecure_ambivalent_tally + model.attachment)

{true} setModel("insecure_ambivalent_tally", model.insecure_ambivalent_tally - model.stress)

{model.insecure_ambivalent_tally < -6.9} setModel("insecure_ambivalent", "true")

{model.insecure_ambivalent == "true"} setModel("insecure_attachment", "true")

{model.insecure_avoidant == "true" || model.insecure_ambivalent == "true"} setModel("baby_secure", "false")

{true} setModel("attachment_type", "typeB")

{model.insecure_avoidant == "true"} setModel("attachment_type", "typeA")

{model.insecure_ambivalent == "true"} setModel("attachment_type", "typeC")

{model.attachment_type == "typeB"} setModel("attachment_name", "Secure Attachment")

{model.attachment_type == "typeA"} setModel("attachment_name", "Anxious Avoidant Attachment")

{model.attachment_type == "typeC"} setModel("attachment_name", "Anxious Ambivalent Attachment")

{model.attachment_type == "typeB"} setModel("step1", "Baby plays happily with toys, checking back with the parent from time to time, but is able to explore the space.")

{model.attachment_type == "typeA"} setModel("step1", "Baby is independent and moves away from the parent to explore the room on their own.")

{model.attachment_type == "typeC"} setModel("step1", "Baby is pretty clingy and doesn’t really explore the space or play very far from the mother.")

{model.attachment_type == "typeB"} setModel("step2", "Baby checks in with parent to see if the Stranger is okay, but primarily plays closer to the parent.")

{model.attachment_type == "typeA"} setModel("step2", "Baby doesn’t seem afraid of the stranger.")

{model.attachment_type == "typeC"} setModel("step2", "Baby is pretty clingy and afraid of the Stranger.")

{model.attachment_type == "typeB"} setModel("step3", "Baby is upset when parent leaves but the Stranger helps to comfort " + model.baby_him_her + " somewhat.")

{model.attachment_type == "typeA"} setModel("step3", "Baby doesn’t seem particularly upset when the parent leaves.")

{model.attachment_type == "typeC"} setModel("step3", "Baby is really, really upset when you leave the room and difficult for the Stranger to comfort.")

{model.attachment_type == "typeB"} setModel("step4", "Baby is really happy to see the parent when parent returns.")

{model.attachment_type == "typeA"} setModel("step4", "Baby doesn’t even seem to really notice that the parent has returned.")

{model.attachment_type == "typeC"} setModel("step4", "Baby approaches the parent when they return but " + model.baby_his_her + " reaction is confused—" + model.baby_he_she + " seems to even be pushing the parent away.")

{model.attachment_type == "typeB"} setModel("step5", "Baby is really upset that the parent has left again and cries.")

{model.attachment_type == "typeA"} setModel("step5", "Baby seems unhappy to be alone but not overly upset.")

{model.attachment_type == "typeC"} setModel("step5", "Baby cries and is extremely upset.")

{model.attachment_type == "typeB"} setModel("step6", "Baby is somewhat comforted by the Stranger but is still clearly not happy that " + model.baby_his_her + " parent is gone.")

{model.attachment_type == "typeA"} setModel("step6", "Baby is comforted by the reappearance of the Stranger.")

{model.attachment_type == "typeC"} setModel("step6", "Baby is still extremely upset although " + model.baby_he_she + " approaches the Stranger for comfort.")

{model.attachment_type == "typeB"} setModel("step7", "Baby is really happy to see the parent when parent returns and approaches to be picked up.")

{model.attachment_type == "typeA"} setModel("step7", "Baby doesn’t even seem to really notice that the parent has returned.")

{model.attachment_type == "typeC"} setModel("step7", "Baby approaches the parent when parent returns but " + model.baby_his_her + " reaction is confused—" + model.baby_he_she + " seems to be angry with the parent.")

{true} player.setChildAge( "20m" )

Look Inside

What’s going on as they test to see how your child reacts when you leave the room? Review what scientists understand about the development of early social bonds between adults and their children.

Learn More

Baby Avatar will load here.

In this procedure, {model.babyName} will be separated from you for a little bit and then reunited. Many babies will be upset during the process—because they have separation anxiety and stranger anxiety at this stage. Because {model.babyName} is in daycare, this may be a bit easier on {model.baby_him_her} than for babies that have never been away from their parents before.

In this procedure, {model.babyName} will be separated from you for a little bit and then reunited. Many babies will be upset during the process—because they have separation anxiety and stranger anxiety at this stage. Because {model.babyName} is with a babysitter, this may be a bit easier on {model.baby_him_her} than for babies that have never been away from their parents before.

In this procedure, {model.babyName} will be separated from you for a little bit and then reunited. Many babies will be upset during the process—because they have separation anxiety and stranger anxiety at this stage. Because {model.babyName} stays with other family members, this may be a bit easier on {model.baby_him_her} than for babies that have never been away from their parents before.

In this procedure, {model.babyName} will be separated from you for a little bit and then reunited. Many babies will be upset during the process—because they have separation anxiety and stranger anxiety at this stage.

Explain

In real life (outside of this simulation), the Strange Situation is a research tool—it is not a way of analyzing the development of an individual child. It is designed to be used in studying large groups of children—not children one-by-one. In real life, if you had a question or wanted to know more about how your child’s attachment was developing, finding a research scientist and {model.baby_his_her} graduate students to perform the Strange Situation experiment on your child wouldn’t necessarily get you the most helpful result. You would be better off finding a mental health professional, like a clinical psychologist licensed to work with small children, to help you figure out what was going on.

But for researchers, the Strange Situation can be a tool for looking at the early relationship between parents and children. Attachment theorists believe that the early relationship between parents and children is central to the emotional development of children. Strong relationships between a caregiver and a child—where the caregiver is warm and attentive to the child’s needs, seem to produce toddlers who are able to explore and play on their own and also who are able to be soothed and comforted by adults. Most children—about 70 percent in most studies—are classified as securely attached. But about 30 percent are insecurely or anxiously attached. Insecure attachments seem to happen when a caregiver is either unable or inconsistent in providing responsive care. When a caregiver is less available or less attentive to a child’s needs, toddlers seem to tune out and stop looking to adults to provide comfort. These children tend to have avoidant attachment patterns. When a caregiver is not consistently able to provide attention or responsiveness, that child may end up with an anxious ambivalent attachment style, where they seem to be clingy and unable to separate from the parent—and demonstrating angry or having mixed feelings about connecting with them. There is also a fourth attachment style, which we did not cover in this activity. Disorganized attachment is characterized by highly unusual behavior in the Strange Situation—when a child is afraid of a parent or freezes during the task. Typically this type of attachment is due to neglectful or even abusive parenting or profound developmental problems in the toddler.

Experts differ on how much attachment styles can affect children’s later relationships—but they all agree that these early attachments don’t need to be permanent. Parenting can change and new caregivers can provide better or different attachments for children. However, early secure attachment patterns can be protective—and seem to be associated with better social relationships in school and even into adulthood. Toddlers who had avoidant or ambivalent attachment styles seem to be at higher risk for problems later in life.

Continue

IT15

true

it15

{true} player.setChildAge( "24m" )

{true} setModel("partnerAgeValueUpdated", model.partnerAgeValue + 2)

{true} setModel("userAgeValueUpdated", model.userAgeValue + 2)

Learn More

Look Inside

Review what we understand about cognitive development in infancy. This video discusses Piaget’s Sensorimotor stage in infancy and toddlerhood and includes discussion of topics such as circular reactions, and formation of mental representations.

At dinner time tonight, {model.babyName} was throwing food on the floor. First peas, then carrots and then dripping milk from {model.baby_his_her} sippy cup on top of the concoction. Then {model.baby_he_she}’d lean {model.baby_his_her} head down and watch how it looked as it collected on the floor. When {model.baby_he_she} saw you looking at {model.baby_him_her}, {model.baby_he_she} said, “Bye Bye Peas.”

You left the room to look for the phone this afternoon only to come back and find that {model.babyName} had discovered the postage stamps you’d meant to use to mail out bills. {model.baby_He_She_cap} was carefully peeling them off and sticking them all over the table and then {model.baby_him_her}self, starting at {model.baby_his_her} toes and working {model.baby_his_her} way up to {model.baby_his_her} diaper. When {model.baby_he_she} saw you looking at {model.baby_him_her} {model.baby_he_she} said, “All gone.”

While you were answering the phone, you turned away for just a few seconds and in that short time {model.babyName} managed to flush two toothbrushes down the toilet! When you looked back at {model.baby_him_her} with utter disbelief {model.baby_he_she} said proudly, “All gone!”

Your baby definitely couldn’t have done this 3 months ago! {model.baby_He_She_cap}'s not only making a plan—{model.baby_he_she} is experimenting. {model.baby_He_She_cap} is using trial and error to figure out how things work. Would the peas hit the floor in the same way as the carrots? Did the milk make a different mark?

Your baby definitely couldn’t have done this 3 months ago! {model.baby_He_She_cap}'s not only making a plan—{model.baby_he_she} is experimenting. {model.baby_He_She_cap} is using trial and error to figure out how things work. How did these stamps work? Did they stick the same way on skin, on clothing and on the tile floor?

Your baby definitely couldn’t have done this 3 months ago! {model.baby_He_She_cap}'s not only making a plan—{model.baby_he_she} is experimenting. {model.baby_He_She_cap} is using trial and error to figure out how things work. Would all the tooth brushes go down the toilet? Or just the baby-sized ones?

Table : Your Baby’s Piaget Stages Update

Explain

Your baby isn’t just getting into trouble and making messes—{model.baby_he_she} is figuring out how the world works. In Piaget Stage 5, {model.baby_he_she} is doing experiments to see how things work—how the toilet flushes, how the toothpaste squeezes out of the tube, or how quickly you’ll pick up the spoon that {model.baby_he_she} throws on the floor. {model.baby_He_She_cap} now has the physical skills to pick things up and do things to them (sometimes not exactly the things that adults had in mind) and try and figure out how they work. Experts call this “little scientist” behavior because the toddlers are trying to figure out how the world works using trial-and-error just like real scientists. They have an idea that they are trying to explore using their senses (how many stamps can I fit on my foot, how much diaper cream can I put in a pile before my mother finds me). As they grow older, they’ll start to understand that some of these experiments are too messy or even too unsafe to continue—but at about 18 months, their curiosity seems to be no match for an adult's disapproval.

Continue

IT16

true

it16

{true} player.setChildAge( "30m" )

{true} setModel("partnerAgeValueUpdated", model.partnerAgeValue + 2.5)

{true} setModel("userAgeValueUpdated", model.userAgeValue + 2.5)

{true} setModel("IT16_early_talker", "false")

{true} setModel("IT16_late_talker", "false")

{true} setModel("IT16_average_talker", "false")

{model.baby_boy_girl == "girl" && model.r100 < 10} setModel("IT16_early_talker", "true")

{model.baby_boy_girl == "girl" && model.r100 > 93} setModel("IT16_late_talker", "true")

{model.baby_boy_girl == "boy" && model.r100 > 83} setModel("IT16_late_talker", "true")

{model.IT16_early_talker == "false" && model.IT16_late_talker == "false"} setModel("IT16_average_talker", "true")

Learn More

Look Inside

As brains and bodies develop, babies are increasingly able to communicate. These videos will help you review what we know about brain development and the development of language in infancy and toddlerhood.

Developmental scientist Debra Mills recorded and analyzed the brain-wave patterns of an infant who listened as a puppet recited words, both familiar and unfamiliar. This laboratory scene is captured in this video along with Mills’ discussing ERP (Event-Related Potentials) research, in particular research related to changes in brain organization (especially cerebral lateralization of language) that occur as children acquire language.

This video discusses language development in early infancy. It includes a review and timeline of speech development along with theories of language acquisition.

You were so pleased when {model.babyName} was so ahead of other children {model.baby_his_her} age. At {model.baby_his_her} first birthday, you think {model.baby_he_she} was saying about 15 words. And by the time {model.baby_he_she} was a little bit older, {model.baby_he_she} was singing “Happy Birthday.” {model.baby_He_She_cap} seems so ahead of {model.baby_his_her} age! Just this morning {model.babyName} told you in a perfect sentence that “Cherrios go bye-bye” as {model.baby_he_she} threw {model.baby_his_her} cereal off of the table during breakfast. It was hard not to laugh and be proud that {model.baby_he_she} said 3 words in a row!

You’ve been so excited to hear {model.babyName}’s first words and listen to {model.baby_him_her} picking up new words every day. You’ve had to watch your language a bit and be careful about what you say on the phone when {model.baby_he_she} is within earshot.

Around the time {model.baby_he_she} was a year old, one word could mean almost anything: “Milk” meant “Get me the milk now,” “I dropped the milk bottle on the floor,” or “Look at how this milk can drip onto my high chair.” These one-word utterances are called holophrases.

But now that {model.babyName} is {model.childData.age.years} years old, you’re hearing interesting combinations like “Milk uh-oh” and “More milk.”

Your pediatrician reassures you that in most cases, babies who start talking a little later turn out just fine and catch up by the time they are 3 or 4. And it isn’t your fault and it doesn’t mean that your baby isn’t bright: Most later talkers seem to be that way because of their genes rather than something you’re doing. However, some babies who start talking later will be at risk for later verbal problems—and about 10 percent of later talkers will have some long-term language challenges.

{model.talk_to_child == "high"} setModel("quest_talk", "I’m going to keep on talking a lot to my child every day.")

{model.talk_to_child == "high"} setModel("quest_talk_FB", "Great! Talking to your child every day is the best thing you can do to support " + model.baby_his_her + " speech. Hitting " + model.baby_his_her + " language milestones is great! But you can help expand on " + model.baby_his_her + " developing skills by helping " + model.baby_him_her + " acquire a larger vocabulary, more sophisticated grammar and an ability to tell stories.")

{model.talk_to_child != "high"} setModel("quest_talk", "I’m going to try and talk more to my child every day.")

{model.talk_to_child != "high"} setModel("quest_talk_FB", "Great! Reading to your child every day is one of the best things you can do to support " + model.baby_his_her + " speech. Hitting " + model.baby_his_her + " language milestones is great! But you can help expand on " + model.baby_his_her + " developing skills by helping " + model.baby_him_her + " acquire a larger vocabulary, more sophisticated grammar and an ability to tell stories. Helping your child to enjoy reading will also help prepare " + model.baby_him_her + " for school.")

{model.increase_language == "read"} setModel("quest_read", "I’m going to keep on reading to my child every day.")

{model.increase_language == "read"} setModel("quest_read_FB", "Great! Reading to your child every day is one of the best things you can do to support " + model.baby_his_her + " speech. Hitting " + model.baby_his_her + " language milestones is great! But you can help expand on " + model.baby_his_her + " developing skills by helping " + model.baby_him_her + " acquire a larger vocabulary, more sophisticated grammar and an ability to tell stories. Helping your child to enjoy reading will also help prepare " + model.baby_him_her + " for school.")

{model.increase_language != "read"} setModel("quest_read", "I’m going to start reading to my child every day.")

{model.increase_language != "read"} setModel("quest_read_FB", "Great! Reading to your child every day is one of the best things you can do to support " + model.baby_his_her + " speech. Hitting " + model.baby_his_her + " language milestones is great! But you can help expand on " + model.baby_his_her + " developing skills by helping " + model.baby_him_her + " acquire a larger vocabulary, more sophisticated grammar and an ability to tell stories.")

{model.SEClass == "U"} setModel("genius_FB", "Your child may indeed be gifted—or " + model.baby_he_she + " could just be a child who is lucky enough to learn how to talk a bit earlier than other children. Just as a child who learns to walk a few months earlier isn’t necessarily going to be a soccer star, being an early talker doesn’t necessarily mean that your child will be a super-genius—although most early talkers continue to have good verbal and speech skills as they get older. You don’t have to find a special school for your child—and you may find it difficult to find any schools that cater to baby geniuses. Keep supporting your child’s language development with books, talking and story-telling—and enjoy those early conversations.")

{model.SEClass != "U"} setModel("genius_FB", "Your child may indeed be gifted—or " + model.baby_he_she + " could just be a child who is lucky enough to learn how to talk a bit earlier than other children. Just as a child who learns to walk a few months earlier isn’t necessarily going to be a soccer star, being an early talker doesn’t necessarily mean that your child will be a super-genius—although most early talkers continue to have good verbal and speech skills as they get older. You don’t have to find a special school for your child—and you may find it difficult to find any schools that cater to baby geniuses and are affordable. Keep supporting your child’s language development with books, talking and story-telling—and enjoy those early conversations.")

Explain

After babies learn how to walk, the next milestone most parents worry about is when they’ll start talking. The usual rule reminds us that babies have first words by age one and first two-word combinations by age two. However, unlike the motor milestones, the language milestones seem to be more affected by a child’s genes than what is happening in the outside environment. Whether they are in a speech-rich environment or an environment with relatively quiet parents, most children hit their language milestones at about the same time.

Check out the Learn More for a review of the language milestones in this period, as children move from single words to more and more complex vocabularies and grammar. Parents and caregivers may not be able to help children hit their milestones more quickly (even if they wanted to, this seems to be genetically predetermined), but they can play an important role in helping their children develop richer vocabularies and more sophisticated communication skills—as well as helping them enjoy words, songs and reading—which will help them be more successful in school.

About 15 percent of children have some kind of language delay—they are quieter than other children and have smaller vocabularies. Most of these children (about 90%) catch up with their peers by the time they reach kindergarten, but some of them continue to have language delays. Some are delayed because they have hearing issues (like many untreated ear infections), a few have Autism Spectrum Disorders or some kind of pervasive intellectual disability, and some have a specific communication disorder.

Children who are delayed in their understanding of language (as well as their expression of language) and who are delayed in other areas of development are more at risk if they are also language delayed. Researchers believe that language delay is caused by genetics rather than environmental factors: speech delay seems to run in families. Even with twins who are separated at birth, speech delay seems to happen even though they are raised in different families. And a speech delay doesn’t mean that children are not going to be smart, or verbal—but these children may need some support in managing their frustration in not being able to communicate as well as their peers. In the United States, all children are eligible for free speech-language services before they enroll in school.

Continue

IT17

true

it17

{true} player.setChildAge( "30m" )

{true} setModel("partnerAgeValueUpdated", model.partnerAgeValue + 2.5)

{true} setModel("userAgeValueUpdated", model.userAgeValue + 2.5)

{model.vaccinate == "false"} setModel("IT17_immunization_gr1_achieve", "Not yet")

{model.vaccinate == "true"} setModel("IT17_immunization_gr1_achieve", "Achieved")

{model.vaccinate == "false"} setModel("immunization_gr1_rec", "Being fully immunized is a great choice for your child’s health—if your child isn’t fully immunized " + model.baby_he_she + " can catch up at " + model.baby_his_her + " next office visit.")

{model.vaccinate == "true"} setModel("immunization_gr1_rec", "Great work! ")

{true} setModel("IT17_achieve_weight", "Appropriate weight")

{model.childData.weight.percentile < 11} setModel("IT17_achieve_weight", "Underweight")

{model.childData.weight.percentile > 89} setModel("IT17_achieve_weight", "Overweight")

{model.IT17_achieve_weight != "Appropriate weight"} setModel("rec_weight", "The next few years can be a great time to maintain or improve health habits and choices.")

{model.IT17_achieve_weight == "Appropriate weight"} setModel("rec_weight", "Great work!")

{true} setModel("IT17_achieve_running", "Achieved")

{true} setModel("rec_running", "Good work! More than 90 percent of children are able to run fluidly by the time they are 2 ½. Children who don’t have enough opportunity to practice may be delayed in their gross motor skills—and they may have some social challenges since so much of young children’s social interaction involves running and active play.")

{true} setModel("IT17_achieve_kick", "Achieved")

{true} setModel("rec_kick", "Great work! More than 90 percent of children can kick a ball forward by the time they are 2. Some children who are exposed to a lot of soccer and ball games can already dribble the ball the time they are 2 ½.")

{true} setModel("IT17_achieve_tower", "Achieved")

{model.rnum < 51 && model.IT7_daycare_quality == "bad" && model.parenting_score < -3} setModel("IT17_achieve_tower", "Emergent")

{true} setModel("rec_tower", "Most children are able to build a tower of 6 to 8 blocks high by the time they are 2 ½ years old. Again—as with most motor milestones, practice makes perfect. Children who don’t get a lot of opportunities to work with their hands may be delayed.")

{true} setModel("IT17_achieve_line", "Achieved")

{model.rnum > 50 && model.IT7_daycare_quality == "bad" && model.parenting_score < -3} setModel("IT17_achieve_line", "Emergent")

{true} setModel("rec_line", "Most children are able to draw a straight line by the time they are 2 ½ years old. Again—as with most motor milestones, practice makes perfect. Children who don’t get a lot of opportunities to work with their hands may be delayed.")

{true} setModel("IT17_achieve_3words", "Achieved")

{model.IT16_late_talker == "true"} setModel("IT17_achieve_3words", "Emergent")

{model.IT17_achieve_3words == "Emergent"} setModel("rec_3words", "About 15 percent of children have speech delays that cause a delay in reaching the key language milestones. Don’t stop talking to your child, however! " + model.baby_He_She_cap + " can understand you and will still need a rich language environment so that " + model.baby_he_she + " can catch up. If you haven't already, you might consider getting a speech-pathologist to evaluate your child to make sure " + model.baby_he_she + " is on the right track.")

{model.IT17_achieve_3words != "Emergent"} setModel("rec_3words", "Good work!")

{true} setModel("IT17_achieve_450words", "Achieved")

{model.IT16_late_talker == "true" || model.child_vocabulary == "low"} setModel("IT17_achieve_450words", "Emergent")

{model.baby_activity == "reading" || model.increase_language == "read" || model.increase_language == "talk"} setModel("IT17_achieve_450words", "Achieved")

{model.IT16_late_talker == "true"} setModel("rec_450words", "While your child doesn’t have 450 expressed words, you’ll want to make sure you keep encouraging " + model.baby_his_her + " language development—make sure " + model.baby_he_she + " understands a lot of words while " + model.baby_his_her + " spoken language is in the works.")

{model.child_vocabulary == "low"} setModel("rec_450words", "You may want to work with your child, and " + model.baby_his_her + " care providers, to make sure that " + model.baby_he_she + " has enough language around " + model.baby_him_her + ". If " + model.baby_he_she + " is watching a lot of television, think about turning it off and spending more time reading.")

{model.IT17_achieve_450words == "Achieved"} setModel("rec_450words", "Good work!")

{true} setModel("IT17_achieve_imagine", "Achieved")

{true} setModel("rec_imagine", "Between 18 months and 24 months, children enter Piaget’s 6th stage and they are able to demonstrate some of their new skills by playing imaginatively with other children. Bring on the imaginary tea parties and the super heroes!")

{true} setModel("IT17_achieve_settledown", "Achieved")

{model.babyMoodiness > 3 && model.insecure_ambivalent == "true"} setModel("IT17_achieve_settledown", "Emergent")

{model.babyTemperament == "difficult" && model.parent_score < -2.9} setModel("IT17_achieve_settledown", "Emergent")

{model.IT17_achieve_settledown == "Emergent"} setModel("rec_settledown", "Your little one is still having a bit more trouble than " + model.baby_his_her + " peers controlling " + model.baby_his_her + " emotions. You may want to try to help your child develop better emotional regulation by encouraging " + model.baby_him_her + " to talk more about " + model.baby_his_her + " feelings, expressing warmth along with appropriate limits (like no hitting!).")

{model.IT17_achieve_settledown == "Achieved"} setModel("rec_settledown", "Good work! Learning how to calm oneself is one of the important tasks of early childhood. Children who can settle themselves will be better able to handle the unusual and everyday stresses that life will hand them.")

{true} setModel("IT17_achieve_bond", "Achieved")

{model.insecure_avoidant == "true"} setModel("IT17_achieve_bond", "Emergent")

{model.babyMoodiness > 3 && model.babyTemperament == "difficult"} setModel("IT17_achieve_bond", "Emergent")

{model.IT17_achieve_bond == "Emergent"} setModel("rec_bond", "Being able to separate from their parents and make bonds with new people is one of the important jobs of early childhood, as children begin to make relationships outside the immediate family. Help your child develop these relationships by focusing on building a warmer relationship with " + model.baby_him_her + " yourself.")

{model.IT17_achieve_bond != "Emergent"} setModel("rec_bond", "Nice work! Making social relationships, particularly with people outside the immediate family, is one of the tasks of early childhood so your child seems to be in good shape.")

{true} setModel("IT17_achieve_followdir", "Achieved")

{true} setModel("moody_mom", "false")

{model.Mother == "user" && model.userMoodiness > 3} setModel("moody_mom", "true")

{model.Mother == "partner" && model.partnerMoodiness > 3} setModel("moody_mom", "true")

{model.parenting_score < -2.9 && model.babyTemperament == "difficult" && model.moody_mom == "true"} setModel("IT17_achieve_followdir", "Emergent")

{model.IT17_achieve_followdir == "Emergent"} setModel("rec_followdir", "All children have trouble following directions when they are toddlers. Developing compliance and self-control doesn’t come easy! But you may want to work with your child to help " + model.baby_him_her + " follow directions. Give " + model.baby_him_her + " a ton of positive reinforcement when " + model.baby_he_she + " gets it right and make sure to give " + model.baby_him_her + " easy, achievable goals. ")

{model.IT17_achieve_followdir == "Achieved"} setModel("rec_followdir", "Good work. No child follows directions perfectly. Developing compliance and self-control doesn’t come easy! But you should keep on working with your child to help " + model.baby_him_her + " follow directions. Give " + model.baby_him_her + " a ton of positive reinforcement when " + model.baby_he_she + " gets it right and make sure to give " + model.baby_him_her + " easy, achievable goals.")

{true} setModel("IT17_achieve_happy", "Achieved")

{model.insecure_avoidant == "true" || model.insecure_ambivalent == "true"} setModel("IT17_achieve_happy", "Emergent")

{model.baby_secure == "true" && model.babyTemperament == "difficult" && model.parenting_score < -3} setModel("IT17_achieve_happy", "Emergent")

{model.IT17_achieve_happy == "Emergent"} setModel("rec_happy", "Compared to " + model.baby_his_her + " peers, your child just doesn’t seem quite as happy. There may be things you can do to help " + model.baby_him_her + " be more content. If " + model.baby_he_she + " is having trouble in other developmental areas, addressing those concerns may make " + model.baby_him_her + " happier—and it may help to reach out to your pediatrician, daycare provider or nurse practitioner for advice. ")

{model.IT17_achieve_happy == "Achieved"} setModel("rec_happy", "Every parent wants a happy child! And happy children tend to have an easier time making friends and being successful in school—so your child is off to a great start.")

{model.IT17_immunization_gr1_achieve == "Not yet"} setModel("immunization_color", "it17_report_red")

{model.IT17_immunization_gr1_achieve == "Achieved"} setModel("immunization_color", "it17_report_green")

{model.IT17_achieve_weight != "Appropriate weight"} setModel("weight_color", "it17_report_red")

{model.IT17_achieve_weight == "Appropriate weight"} setModel("weight_color", "it17_report_green")

{model.IT17_achieve_settledown != "Achieved"} setModel("settledown_color", "it17_report_red")

{model.IT17_achieve_settledown == "Emergent"} setModel("settledown_color", "it17_report_yellow")

{model.IT17_achieve_settledown == "Achieved"} setModel("settledown_color", "it17_report_green")

{model.IT17_achieve_bond == "Achieved"} setModel("bond_color", "it17_report_green")

{model.IT17_achieve_bond != "Achieved"} setModel("bond_color", "it17_report_red")

{model.IT17_achieve_bond == "Emergent"} setModel("bond_color", "it17_report_yellow")

{model.IT17_achieve_followdir == "Achieved"} setModel("followdir_color", "it17_report_green")

{model.IT17_achieve_followdir != "Achieved"} setModel("followdir_color", "it17_report_red")

{model.IT17_achieve_followdir == "Emergent"} setModel("followdir_color", "it17_report_yellow")

{model.IT17_achieve_happy == "Achieved"} setModel("happy_color", "it17_report_green")

{model.IT17_achieve_happy != "Achieved"} setModel("happy_color", "it17_report_red")

{model.IT17_achieve_happy == "Emergent"} setModel("happy_color", "it17_report_yellow")

{model.IT17_achieve_3words == "Achieved"} setModel("threewords_color", "it17_report_green")

{model.IT17_achieve_3words != "Achieved"} setModel("threewords_color", "it17_report_red")

{model.IT17_achieve_3words == "Emergent"} setModel("threewords_color", "it17_report_yellow")

{model.IT17_achieve_450words == "Achieved"} setModel("fourfiftywords_color", "it17_report_green")

{model.IT17_achieve_450words != "Achieved"} setModel("fourfiftywords_color", "it17_report_red")

{model.IT17_achieve_450words == "Emergent"} setModel("fourfiftywords_color", "it17_report_yellow")

{model.IT17_achieve_imagine == "Achieved"} setModel("imagine_color", "it17_report_green")

{model.IT17_achieve_imagine != "Achieved"} setModel("imagine_color", "it17_report_red")

{model.IT17_achieve_tower == "Achieved"} setModel("tower_color", "it17_report_green")

{model.IT17_achieve_tower == "Emergent"} setModel("tower_color", "it17_report_yellow")

{model.IT17_achieve_line == "Achieved"} setModel("line_color", "it17_report_green")

{model.IT17_achieve_line == "Emergent"} setModel("line_color", "it17_report_yellow")

Look Inside

Babies are growing quickly—both inside and out. This video describes physical and brain development in infancy.

Baby Avatar will load here.

In the fall {model.baby_he_she}’ll be out of the toddler room at daycare and into the preschool.

At the end of the year, Worth Daycare Center gave {model.babyName} a progress report showing how {model.baby_he_she}’s doing compared to {model.baby_his_her} peers.

Baby Name: {model.babyName}

Age: {model.childData.age.years} years old

Your friends are already asking you whether {model.babyName} will be going into preschool in the fall. Hard to believe that your little one will be ready for school already.

At {model.babyName}’s last visit, {model.shortbabyProviderName} gave you a progress report showing how {model.baby_he_she}’s doing compared to {model.baby_his_her} peers.

Table : Infant and Toddlers Capstone

Explain

It is difficult to assess the development of a child at just 30 months of age. Children develop at different rates. Some may excel in one domain but lag behind in another. Caregivers and medical providers still try to do some basic screening of all children during the toddler years to make sure that they are able to catch children who may have delays or challenges due to a known disorder (like autism spectrum disorder), brain trauma (like that which may be caused by a head injury or from an environmental cause like lead poisoning), or even maltreatment. About 40 percent of children receive such a screening and they are becoming standard in most daycare programs.

How are most kids doing? It depends.

Continue

learn_more

Video: The Senses in Infancy and Toddlerhood

The video includes a discussion of infant sensory development, including prenatal development, and a discussion of vision (the least developed at birth) as well as details of the other senses (e.g., taste, touch, smell, hearing).

Video: Development of Self-Awareness in Infancy and Toddlerhood

The video discusses the development of self-awareness and includes an interview with Nancy Eisenberg, PhD, Arizona State U, regarding infants’ inability to recognize themselves in a mirror until about 18 months. Includes “rouge” test (mirror self-recognition test) and shows younger infants (under 18 months) not wiping the rouge away but older infants (over 18 months) doing so. Also discusses Erikson’s “Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt” stage.

Video: John Watson and Rosalie Rayner's Little Albert Experiment, 1919

Video: Family Structure and Function in Middle Childhood

Video: John and Julie Gottman Examine Marital and Family Stress

Video: Language Development: Word Learning: Clip A

Video is footage of a 1 ½-year-old boy in a research lab engaged in a word-learning study. The researcher shows a familiar object (duck) and a novel object (she calls a “blicket”) and then asks him to choose the “blicket.” The boy successfully chooses the novel object. The video then shows the same procedure with a 2-year-old girl, who is also successful.

Video: Language Development: Word Learning: Clip B

Video is footage of a 1 ½-year-old boy in a research lab engaged in a word learning study. The researcher has two opaque buckets with objects inside. She looks into one and says “I have a ziggy” multiple times. She then pulls out the objects and the child is able to determine which object is the ziggy by following her eye gaze. The video then shows the same procedure with a 2-year-old boy, who is also successful.

Video: Language Development: Word Learning: Clip C

Video is footage of a 2-year-old girl in a research lab engaged in a word learning study. The researcher has 4 opaque cups with novel objects inside. She says “I am going to find a blicket” and then looks in each cup and either says “no” or “ah”. Then she pulls out the novel objects and asks the child to choose the blicket, which she does successfully. The same procedure is repeated with a 2-year-old boy using the word “modi” and a different target object.

Scientific American Article: How to Build a Better Learner

Here are some additional resources. After you have read each resource, take the Token Quiz to test your knowledge and to earn tokens. Tokens can be spent on items in the store or to access special items in events.

Scientific American Article: How to Build a Better Learner

Brain studies suggest new ways to improve reading, writing and arithmetic—and even social skills

January 1, 2015

By Gary Stix

Early Exercises

The technology and research methods of the neuroscientist have started to reveal, at the most basic level, what happens in the brain when we learn something new.

As these studies mature, it may become possible for a preschooler or even an infant to engage in simple exercises to ensure that the child is cognitively equipped for school.

If successful, such interventions could potentially have a huge effect on educational practices by dramatically reducing the incidence of various learning disabilities. But scientists, educators and parents must beware overstated claims for brain-training methods that purport to help youngsters but have not been proved to work.

Eight-month-old Lucas Kronmiller has just had the surface of his largely hairless head fitted with a cap of 128 electrodes. A research assistant in front of him is frantically blowing bubbles to entertain him. But Lucas seems calm and content. He has, after all, come here, to the Infancy Studies Laboratory at Rutgers University, repeatedly since he was just four months old, so today is nothing unusual. He—like more than 1,000 other youngsters over the past 15 years—is helping April A. Benasich and her colleagues to find out whether, even at the earliest age, it is possible to ascertain if a child will go on to experience difficulties in language that will prove a burdensome handicap when first entering elementary school.

Benasich is one of a cadre of researchers who have been employing brain-recording techniques to understand the essential processes that underlie learning. The new science of neuroeducation seeks the answers to questions that have always perplexed cognitive psychologists and pedagogues.

How, for instance, does a newborn's ability to process sounds and images relate to the child's capacity to learn letters and words a few years later? What does a youngster's ability for staying mentally focused in preschool mean for later academic success? What can educators do to foster children's social skills—also vital in the classroom? Such studies can complement the wealth of knowledge established by psychological and educational research programs.

They also promise to offer new ideas, grounded in brain science, for making better learners and for preparing babies and toddlers for reading, writing, arithmetic, and survival in the complex social network of nursery school and beyond. Much of this work focuses on the first years of life and the early grades of elementary school because some studies show that the brain is most able to change at that time.

The Aha! Instant

Benasich studies anomalies in the way the brains of the youngest children perceive sound, a cognitive process fundamental to language understanding, which, in turn, forms the basis for reading and writing skills. The former nurse, who later earned two doctorates, focuses on what she calls the aha! instant— an abrupt transition in electrical activity in the brain that signals that something new has been recognized [see “The Aha! Moment,” by Nessa Bryce].

Researchers at Benasich's lab in Newark, N.J., expose Lucas and other infants to tones of a certain frequency and duration. They then record a change in the electrical signals generated in the brain when a different frequency is played. Typically the electroencephalogram (EEG) produces a strong oscillation in response to the change—indicating that the brain essentially says, “Yes, something has changed”; a delay in the response time to the different tones means that the brain has not detected the new sound quickly enough.

The research has found that this pattern of sluggish electrical activity at six months can predict language issues at three to five years of age. Differences in activity that persist during the toddler and preschool years can foretell problems in development of the brain circuitry that processes the rapid transitions occurring during perception of the basic units of speech. If children fail to hear or process components of speech—say, a “da” or a “pa”—quickly enough as toddlers, they may lag in “sounding out” written letters or syllables in their head, which could later impede fluency in reading. These findings offer more rigorous confirmation of other research by Benasich showing that children who encounter early problems in processing these sounds test poorly on psychological tests of language eight or nine years later.

If Benasich and others can diagnose future language problems in infants, they may be able to correct them by exploiting the inherent plasticity of the developing brain—its capacity to change in response to new experiences. They may even be able to improve basic functioning for an infant whose brain is developing normally. “The easiest time to make sure that the brain is getting set up in a way that's optimal for learning may be in the first part of the first year,” she says.

Games, even in the crib, could be one answer. Benasich and her team have devised a game toy that trains a baby to react to a change in tone by turning the head or shifting the eyes (detected with a tracking sensor). When the movement occurs, a video snippet plays, a reward for good effort. In a study reported in 2014 babies who went through this training detected tiny modulations within the sounds faster and more accurately than did children who only listened passively or had no exposure to the sounds at all. Based on this research, Benasich believes that the game would assist infants impaired in processing these sounds to respond more quickly. She is now working on an interactive game that could train infants to perceive rapid sound sequences.

The Number Sense

Flexing cognitive muscles early on may also help infants tune rudimentary math skills. Stanislas Dehaene, a neuroscientist at the French National Institute of Health and Medical Research, is a leader in the field of numerical cognition who has tried to develop ways to help children with early math difficulties. Babies have some capability of recognizing numbers from birth. When the skill is not in place from the beginning, Dehaene says, a child may later have difficulty with arithmetic and higher math. Interventions that build this “number sense,” as Dehaene calls it, may help the slow learner avoid years of difficulty in math class.

This line of research contradicts that of famed psychologist Jean Piaget, who contended that the brains of infants are blank slates, or tabula rasa, when it comes to making calculations in the crib. Children, in Piaget's view, have to develop a basic idea of what a number is from years of interacting with blocks, Cheerios or other objects. They eventually learn that when the little oat rings get pushed around a table, the location differs, but the number stays the same.

The neuroscience community has amassed a body of research showing that humans and other animals have a basic numerical sense. Babies, of course, do not spring from the womb performing differential equations in their head. But experiments have found that toddlers will routinely reach for the row of M&Ms that has the most candies. And other research has demonstrated that even infants only a few months old comprehend relative size. If they see five objects being hidden behind a screen and then another five added to the first set, they convey surprise if they see only five when the screen is removed.

Babies also seem to be born with other innate mathematical abilities. Besides being champion estimators, they can also distinguish exact numbers—but only up to the number three or four. Dehaene was instrumental in pinpointing a brain region—a part of the parietal lobe (the intraparietal sulcus)— where numbers and approximate quantities are represented. (Put a hand on the rear portion of the top of your head to locate the parietal lobe.)

The ability to estimate group size, which also exists in dolphins, rats, pigeons, lions and monkeys, is probably an evolutionary hand-me-down that is required to gauge whether your clan should fight or flee in the face of an enemy and to ascertain which tree bears the most fruit for picking. Dehaene, along with linguist Pierre Pica of the National Center for Scientific Research in France and colleagues, discovered more evidence for this instinctive ability through work with the Mundurukú Indians in the Brazilian Amazon, a tribe that has only an elementary lexicon for numbers. Its adult members can tell whether one array of dots is bigger than another, performing the task almost as well as a French control group did, yet most are unable to answer how many objects remain when four objects are removed from a group of six.

This approximation system is a cornerstone on which more sophisticated mathematics is constructed. Any deficit in these innate capacities can spell trouble later. In the early 1990s Dehaene hypothesized that children build on their internal ballpark estimation system for more sophisticated computations as they get older. Indeed, in the years since then, a number of studies have found that impaired functioning of the primitive numerical estimation system in youngsters can predict that a child will perform poorly in arithmetic and standard math achievement tests from the elementary years onward. “We realize now that the learning of a domain such as arithmetic has to be founded on certain core knowledge that is available already in infancy,” Dehaene says.

It turns out that dyscalculia (the computational equivalent of dyslexia), which is marked by a lag in computational skills, affects 3 to 7 percent of children. Dyscalculia has received much less attention from educators than dyslexia has for reading—yet it may be just as crippling. “They earn less, spend less, are more likely to be sick, are more likely to be in trouble with the law, and need more help in school,” notes a review article that appeared in Science in May 2011.

As with language, early intervention may help. Dehaene and his team devised a simple computer game they hope will enhance mathematical ability. Called the Number Race, it exercises these basic abilities in children aged four to eight. In one version, players must choose the larger of two quantities of gold pieces before a computer-controlled opponent steals the biggest pile. The game adapts automatically to the skill of the player, and at the higher levels the child must add or subtract gold before making a comparison to determine the biggest pile. If the child wins, she advances forward a number of steps equal to the gold just won. The first player to get to the last step on the virtual playing board wins.

The open-source software, which has been translated into eight languages, makes no hyperbolic claims about the benefits of brain training. Even so, more than 20,000 teachers have downloaded the software from a government-supported research institute in Finland. Today it is being tested in several controlled studies to see whether it prevents dyscalculia and whether it helps healthy children bolster their basic number sense.

Get Ahold of Yourself

The cognitive foundations of good learning depend heavily on what psychologists call executive function, a term encompassing such cognitive attributes as the ability to be attentive, hold what you have just seen or heard in the mental scratch pad of working memory, and delay gratification. These capabilities may predict success in school and even in the working world. In 1972 a famous experiment at Stanford University—“Here's a marshmallow, and I'll give you another if you don't eat this one until I return”—showed the importance of executive function. Children who could wait, no matter how much they wanted the treat, did better in school and later in life.

In the 21st century experts have warmed to the idea of executive function as a teachable skill. An educational curriculum called Tools of the Mind has had success in some low-income school districts, where children typically do not fare as well academically compared with high-income districts. The program trains children to resist temptations and distractions and to practice tasks designed to enhance working memory and flexible thinking.

In one example of a self-regulation task, a child might tell himself aloud what to do. These techniques are potentially so powerful that in centers of higher learning, economists now contemplate public policy measures to improve self-control as a way to “enhance the physical and financial health of the population and reduce the rate of crime,” remark the authors of a study that appeared in 2011 in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA.

Findings from neuroscience labs have bolstered that view and have revealed that the tedium of practice to resist metaphorical marshmallows may not be necessary. Music training can work as well. Echoing the Battle Hymn of the Tiger Mother, researchers are finding that assiduous practice of musical instruments may yield a payoff in the classroom—invoking shades of “tiger mom” author Amy Chua, who insisted that her daughters spend endless hours on the violin and piano. Playing an instrument may improve attention, working memory and self-control.

Some of the research providing such findings comes from a group of neuroscientists led by Nina Kraus of Northwestern University. Kraus, head of the Auditory Neuroscience Laboratory there, grew up with a diverse soundscape at home. Her mother, a classical musician, spoke to the future neuroscientist in her native Italian, and Kraus still plays the piano, guitar and drums. “I love it—it's a big part of my life,” she says, although she considers herself “just a hack musician.”

Kraus has used EEG recordings to measure how the nervous system encodes pitch, timing and timbre of musical compositions—and whether neural changes that result from practicing music improve cognitive faculties. Her lab has found that music training enhances working memory and, perhaps most important, makes students better listeners, allowing them to extract speech from the all-talking-at-once atmosphere that sometimes prevails in the classroom.

Musical training as brain tonic is still in its infancy, and a number of questions remain unanswered about exactly what type of practice enhances executive function: Does it matter whether you play the piano or guitar or whether the music was written by Mozart or the Beatles? Critically, will music classes help students who have learning difficulties or who come from low-income school districts?

But Kraus points to anecdotal evidence suggesting that music training's impact extends even to academic classes. The Harmony Project provides music education to low-income youngsters in Los Angeles. Dozens of students participating in the project have graduated from high school and gone on to college, usually the first in their family to do so.

Kraus has worked with the Harmony Project and published a study in 2014 that showed that children in one of its programs who practiced a musical instrument for two years could process sounds closely linked to reading and language skills better than children who only did so for a year. Kraus is an advocate of the guitar over brain games. “If students have to choose how to spend their time between a computer game that supposedly boosts memory or a musical instrument, there's no question, in my mind, which one is more beneficial for the nervous system,” Kraus says. “If you're trying to copy a guitar lead, you have to keep it in your head and try to reproduce it over and over.”

Hype Alert

As research continues on the brain mechanisms underlying success in the “four Rs,” three traditional ones with regulation of one's impulses as the fourth, many scientists involved with neuroeducation are taking pains to avoid overhyping the interventions they are testing. They are eager to translate their findings into practical assistance for children, but they are also well aware that the research still has a long way to go. They know, too, that teachers and parents are already bombarded by a confusing raft of untested products for enhancing learning and that some highly touted tools have proved disappointing.

In one case in point, a small industry developed several years ago around the idea that just listening to a Mozart sonata could make a baby smarter, a contention that failed to withstand additional scrutiny. Kraus's research suggests that to gain any benefit, you have to actually play an instrument, exercising auditory-processing areas of the brain: the more you practice, the more your abilities to distinguish subtleties in sound develop. Listening alone is not sufficient.

Similarly, even some of the brain-training techniques that claim to have solid scientific proof of their effectiveness have been questioned. A meta-analysis that appeared in the March 2011 issue of the Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry reviewed studies of perhaps the best known of all brain-training methods—software called Fast ForWord, developed by Paula A. Tallal of Rutgers, Michael Merzenich of the University of California, San Francisco, and their colleagues. The analysis found no evidence of effectiveness in helping children with language or reading difficulties. As with the methods used by Benasich, a former postdoctoral fellow with Tallal, the software attempts to improve deficits in the processing of sound that can lead to learning problems. The meta-analysis provoked a sharp rebuttal from Scientific Learning, the maker of the software, which claimed that the selection criteria were too restrictive, that most studies in the analysis were poorly implemented and that the software has been improved since the studies were conducted.

The clichéd refrain—more research is needed—applies broadly to many endeavors in neuroeducation. Dehaene's number game still needs fine adjustments before it receives wide acceptance. One controlled study showed that the game helped children compare numbers, although that achievement did not carry over into better counting or arithmetic skills. A new version is being released that the researchers hope will address these problems. Yet another finding has questioned whether music training improves executive function and thereby enhances intelligence.

In a nascent field, one study often contradicts another, only to be followed by a third that disputes the first two. This zigzag trajectory underlies all of science and at times leads to claims that overreach. In neuroeducation, teachers and parents have sometimes become the victims of advertising for “science-based” software and educational programs. “It's confusing. It's bewildering,” says Deborah Rebhuhn, a math teacher at the Center School, a special-education institution in Highland Park, N.J., that accepts students from public schools statewide. “I don't know which thing to try. And there's not enough evidence to go to the head of the school and say that something works.”

A Preschool Tune-up

Scientists who spend their days mulling over EEG wave forms and complex digital patterns in magnetic resonance imaging realize that they cannot yet offer definitive neuroscience-based prescriptions for improving learning. The work, however, is leading to a vision of what is possible, perhaps for Generation Z or its progeny. Consider the viewpoint of John D. E. Gabrieli, a professor of neuroscience participating in a collaborative program between Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In a review article in Science in 2009, Gabrieli conjectured that eventually brain-based evaluation methods, combined with traditional testing, family history and perhaps genetic tests, could detect reading problems by age six and allow for intensive early intervention that might eliminate many dyslexia cases among school-aged children.

One study has already found that EEGs in kindergartners predict reading ability in fifth graders better than standard psychological measures. By undergoing brain monitoring combined with standard methods, each child might be evaluated before entering school and, if warranted, be given remedial training based on the findings that are trickling in today from neuroscience labs. If Gabrieli's vision comes to pass, brain science may imbue the notion of individualized education with a whole new meaning—one that involves enhancing the ability to learn even before a child steps foot in the classroom.

Reproduced with permission. Copyright © (2015) Scientific American, a division of Nature America, Inc. All rights reserved.

Scientific American Article: The Incredible Importance of Mom

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Scientific American Article: The Incredible Importance of Mom

May 12, 2013

By Melanie Tannenbaum

Imagine that you're an infant monkey, and you've just been thrown into a cage after several hours in isolation. You've been deprived of food, so you're starving. Facing you are two adult-looking (fake) monkeys, designed to look like each one could potentially be your mother. On the left is a "wire mother," equipped with a bottle and feeding tube so you can cling to her and fill your belly with milk. On the right is a "cloth mother," with no bottle, but with a fuzzy terrycloth exterior that will allow for hours of soft, warm snuggles.

You can only run to one of the monkeys. Which one will you choose?

Six or seven decades ago, many psychologists would have claimed that any affection that we experience towards our parental figures is a purely behaviorist response. After many instances of conditioning a sense of "positive affect" after receiving life-sustaining food from mothers, children associate that positive emotion with these caregivers, an association that serves as the sole explanation for why people "love" their mothers.

But that's not what Harry Harlow thought. Harlow, a psychologist working at the University of Wisconsin - Madison during the 1960s, believed that there was something more important underlying our affection for Mom and Dad than our primal need to eat and survive. He believed that there was an additional factor: Comfort.

What Harlow did to test this hypothesis was arguably ingenious, though inarguably cruel.¹ Harlow deprived monkeys of food, making them desperately hungry, and then stuck them into a cage where they had a choice of two "mother figures" to run towards. On the left was a wire mother - cold and uncomfortable, yet equipped with a bottle that would feed the baby with life-sustaining nutrients. On the right was a cloth mother - warm, soft, and comfortable, yet unable to provide the infant with any food. If the only reason why we "love" our mothers (and fathers) is based on a conditioned response to our need for food, then the infant monkeys should run to the wire mothers who can feed them every time.

Yet that's not what happened. Not even close.

Time after time, even when desperately hungry, the monkeys would run over to the wire mother just long enough to fill up on milk, and then dash to the cloth mother as quickly as possible to spend the next 17-18 hours snuggling into her warm, comforting body. The infants would sometimes come close to starvation before they would voluntarily leave their cloth mothers to refill their bellies.

The monkeys showed us that when push comes to shove, we don't love our mothers just because they feed us.

We love them because they cuddle us.

Harlow's thinking on this was largely motivated by one of the most important psychologists in our field's history: John Bowlby, who developed attachment theory in the 1950s based on his observations of young, orphaned boys. Bowlby determined that our attachment to parental figures (in particular, he argued, to mothers) plays a huge, critical role in our ability to learn, grow, and develop healthy adult relationships. Without a strong attachment, we are destined to be deeply disturbed.²

Whereas Harlow took this research and used it to explore the hypothesis that we have a core motivation for love and affection, a student of Bowlby's named Mary Ainsworth decided to examine something else: What do the different types of mother-child relationships look like? How can we characterize them, and what types of parenting behaviors produce different kinds of children?

To do this, Ainsworth created a paradigm known as the Strange Situation Procedure.³

The entire thing takes about 20 minutes, and follows a strict sequence of events:

1. The parent and the infant enter a laboratory playroom.
2. The parent and the infant are left alone. The infant is allowed to freely explore the room and all of the toys.
3. A stranger walks in and begins talking to the parent. The stranger then approaches the infant.
4. The parent leaves as inconspicuously as possible, leaving the stranger alone with the infant.
5. The infant is now separated from his/her parent. The stranger tries to interact with the infant.
6. The parent comes back into the room, greeting and comforting the infant.
7. The stranger leaves the room, leaving the parent alone with the infant.
8. The parent leaves the room again. The infant is left alone in the room (supervised through the mirror, of course).
9. The stranger re-enters and again tries to interact with the infant.
10. The parent re-enters, greets the infant, and tries to pick him/her up & provide comfort. The stranger leaves.

The experimenters, watching this whole sequence occur through a two-way mirror, are keeping track of the following four critical things:

1. How much does the infant explore the environment, doing things like playing with new toys or crawling around?
2. How does the infant respond when his/her parent leaves the room?
3. How does the infant behave when he/she is alone with the stranger?
4. How does the infant respond when his/her parent comes back into the room?

After watching dozens and dozens of these interactions, Ainsworth soon discovered that there are three main types of attachment styles: Secure, Avoidant, and Anxious. Infants can be separated into these categories based on how they act during the paradigm described above.

• Secure Attachment: Securely attached infants are happy when Mom is around. They are happy to explore the playroom, using Mom as a "secure base" that they can turn to when they get scared or upset, but they don't feel the need to cling to her. When she leaves, they become incredibly distressed, often crying or refusing to leave the door in the hopes that she will come back. However, once Mom returns into the room, they are happy to be comforted by her, and are soon back to normal. Within a short period of time, they are happy to explore the playroom again, as if Mom never left.
• Avoidant Attachment: Avoidantly attached infants are generally nonplussed or uninterested when Mom is around. They are happy to explore the playroom, but this is mostly because they have no real interest in interacting with Mom. When she leaves, they don't show obvious distress. When she returns, they don't seem particularly happy to see her. Overall, these infants seem largely avoidant or disconnected from their mothers.
• Anxious Attachment: Although anxiously attached infants might seem fine in the playroom at first, once Mom leaves, they become incredibly distressed. However, unlike the securely attached infants, they do not return to normal once Mom returns to the room. Instead, they might seem deeply conflicted, alternating between seeming very angry at Mom for daring to leave or clinging to her and continuing to cry hysterically. They do not quickly return to normal and go back to exploring the playroom; they continue to cling to Mom or express anger about the fact that she abandoned them.

These attachment styles are presumed to arise from different "parenting" behaviors, mostly revolving around emotional availability and responsiveness.

Generally, parents will create secure attachment bonds with their children if they are responsive to their needs and emotionally available. This means that when the child wants attention, the parent will reliably provide that attention and care; however, when the child wants to be left alone, the parent will give them an appropriate amount of space to explore and be independent (in a safe way, of course).

Parents might create avoidant attachment bonds with children if they are consistently unavailable, rejecting, or distant. In this case, children learn that their parents are not going to be there for them, so they adopt a pattern of attachment that revolves around being independent to the point of never needing their parents.

Finally, parents might create anxious attachment bonds with children if they are inconsistently responsive. This means that whereas they might sometimes respond to children's needs, they might be unresponsive just as frequently. Someone who practices this parenting style can be thought of as practicing a fairly self-centered approach to parenting; attention is given when convenient for the parent, even if the child does not want to be held or played with, but not always given when the child wants (or needs) it. Of course, parents will not always be able to respond to their children's cries, needs, or wants. No parent is perfect! But these are patterns of behavior that emerge over a long period of time, in which a parent might be unresponsive as often as he/she is responsive, in a completely unpredictable way.

What else does a secure attachment look like? The three most important features of a secure attachment are that the infant will proximity seek (wanting to be close to the mother), use the mother as a safe haven (cling to her when upset or scared), and use her as a secure base (use the knowledge that she is there as a "safety net" to gain the necessary courage to explore the surrounding environment and try new, interesting things without being too scared).

What is truly fascinating is that these attachment patterns can end up influencing how we approach relationships for the rest of our lives! The general idea is that our relationships with our parents create "working models" (or mental representations) of what a relationship "should" look like. Our parents' levels of emotional responsiveness, availability, and dependability lead us to create mental models that form our concepts of what to expect in relationships throughout our lives. In the table below, you can see how people with each of the three attachment styles might approach adult relationships as they grow up, including romantic relationships, friendships, and more.

There are even questionnaires that you can take to assess your attachment style within romantic relationships, or your adult attachment to your parents, which asks questions about how much you feel you can depend on your father or whether or not you worry about being abandoned by your mother (I've included some great links to a wide range of these "attachment quizzes" at the bottom of this post). But the nuances of adult attachments are a story for another day...

For now, all we need to know is that our mothers (and fathers) are incredibly important. We need love -- in some ways, we crave it as much as (or even more than) we crave basic needs like food. The different ways in which our mothers might respond to our wants and needs shape how we interact with others, respond to strangers, and explore our environments, which ends up playing a big role in how we learn and grow throughout our entire lives. Even into adulthood, our attachments with parents continue to play a huge role, and the models they provide for us about how we should expect other people to respond to us within close relationships can shape what we look for in romantic partners, friends, and colleagues.

So Happy Mother's Day, Mom. Thank you for always being there with a snuggle, a kiss, and consistent emotional support. I've moved across the country two times to pursue my educational dreams, I've tried a huge number of things that I needed a very secure base to have the courage to try, and I've found an incredibly happy, healthy romantic relationship.

Because of social psychology, I know that I have you (and Dad!4) to thank for all of that.

1. It should obviously go without saying that Harlow's experiments on infant rhesus macaques were incredibly unethical. He raised infant monkeys in isolation, leading to serious mental and emotional disturbances that plagued these poor monkeys for the remainder of their lives. I do not condone this behavior. While I remain glad that there is empirical evidence in support of our core need for love and comfort, and I think the evidence that Harlow established is important for our field and for our understanding of human nature, I am deeply saddened that these theories were developed in this way. Descriptions of Harlow's experiments on this site should never be taken as an endorsement for the inhumane treatment of animals.

2. I would like to make it very, incredibly, explicitly clear that this statement says NOTHING about any debate on working mothers, working fathers, etc. There are no differences in attachment quality when comparing children of working parents and children with a stay-at-home parent. Bowlby is speaking about children who were, largely, treated like the monkeys in Harlow's experiments. These were children who were extremely isolated, had no social contact for hours and hours on end, and had absolutely no parental figures present during their formative years. Research has shown that as long as the quality of an attachment is strong when the parent and child interact, it does not matter if that parent happens to be at work for most of the day. Please understand this.

3. All participating mothers provided consent in the original study for these videos to be shared and used for educational purposes in perpetuity.

Scientific American Article: The Benefits of Talking about Thoughts with Tots

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Scientific American Article: The Benefits of Talking about Thoughts with Tots

Discussing thoughts with toddlers may help them understand other minds when they’re older

January 28, 2014

By Rebecca Schwarzlose

Every parent knows that toddlers are strange and inscrutable creatures. They are capricious and contradictory, particularly when trying to interact with other people. My two-year-old daughter is no exception. One moment she is worrying about a crying baby. The next, she is snatching away her friend’s toy and shouting, “Mine!” When I tell her not to do something, it feels like I’m talking to a brick wall. Yet a new study suggests that what I say to her today could shape her ability to reason about other minds for years to come.

For decades, scientists believed that theory of mind – the ability to reason about other people’s thoughts and emotions – doesn’t begin to mature until children reach the age of three or four. They came up with this age using a test called the false-belief task. The test probes whether a child can take the perspective of someone else. In one classic example, children are presented with the following scenario: Sally is playing with a ball. She puts it in a basket and leaves. While she’s gone, Anne moves the ball from the basket to a box. The child is then asked: “When Sally returns, where will she look for the ball?”

Most two- and three-year-olds answer that Sally would look in the box because that’s where they know the ball is. But by four or five, children typically say that Sally would look in the basket because that’s where she would think the ball is. It is a simple switch from an answer based on concrete facts to one based on presumptions about someone else’s knowledge or beliefs. Yet this modest development allows us to survive and thrive in an interconnected, social world. From office collaborations to divvying up chores and even navigating a busy traffic intersection, we rely on our ability to surmise the thoughts of others. How else could we predict what they are likely to do next?

While children’s performance on the false-belief task initially led scientists to conclude that theory of mind develops around age four, that assumption has since been overturned. Beginning in 2005, a series of clever studies found evidence of theory of mind in toddlers and even infants as young as ten months of age. These studies used modified versions of the false-belief task that measured children’s expectations nonverbally. For instance, since infants look longer at events that surprise them, developmental psychologists can use gaze time to infer the predictions of preverbal children. In modified versions of the false-belief task, toddlers and infants stared longer when someone searched for an object where it actually was, rather than where that person would have expected the object to be.

While children typically master the standard false-belief task around the age of four, the timing can range from three to nearly six years of age, depending on the child. Parent-child interactions seem to factor into the timing of this milestone in individual children. Studies have shown that when mothers refer more often to mental states (thoughts, emotions, and desires) in conversations with their young children, these children tend to perform better on theory of mind tests a few years down the line. But is this effect just a matter of learning a few keys words a little sooner or can it lead to long-lasting differences in theory of mind ability?

Rosie Ensor, Claire Hughes, and their colleagues at University of Cambridge tackled this question by testing children over the course of eight years. They first visited the homes of two-year-olds during a family meal and recorded how often the mother and child used ‘thought words’ such as know, forget, think, idea, interest, and understand. One year later, they administered standard false-belief tests and a verbal comprehension test to each child. About three years after that, they gave the kids more false-belief tests and also recorded how often the mothers and children used ‘thought words’ when they read a picture book at home together. Four years after that, when the children were ten and eleven, they administered another verbal comprehension test and ran the children through a different theory of mind test called the Strange Stories. Finally, the authors studied the correlations between these measures and modeled their relationships to one another.

The scientists published their results recently in the journal Child Development. They found that the number of times mothers used ‘thought words’ with their two-year-olds predicted the children’s performance on theory of mind tests at six and ten years of age. The effect wasn’t a reflection of language mastery or the fact that mothers who use many ‘thought words’ with toddlers will tend to do the same when their children are older. Neither the children’s verbal comprehension scores nor the mothers’ use of ‘thought words’ with their children at age six could account for the results.

Will talking to a two-year-old about others’ thoughts and beliefs make a child better at social reasoning down the line? It’s hard to say. These latest results are based on correlations and can’t prove that one thing causes another. Still, they are intriguing and suggestive. Encouraging young children to think about others’ beliefs and feelings may strengthen theory of mind abilities or simply get children into the habit of considering others’ thoughts in ways that persist into their middle-school years.

It’s even possible that the effect lasts beyond the tween years. We all know adults who don’t seem to understand or consider the thoughts and feelings of others. A recent study confirmed that adults differ in their ability to reason about other people’s mental states. It may be that the early discussions we have with children about thoughts and feelings–even before we realize that they are listening–can set the stage for subtle differences in this type of reasoning into adolescence and even adulthood. For now, it’s clear that a toddler’s understanding of other minds is a complex and evolving landscape. I see it every day in the kindnesses and cruelties of my daughter. The world is a social labyrinth that she must learn to navigate as she grows and gains her independence. But maybe, by talking about thoughts and beliefs with her today, I can prepare her and give her the tools she’ll need to find her way tomorrow.

Reproduced with permission. Copyright © (2014) Scientific American, a division of Nature America, Inc. All rights reserved.

Fact or Fiction: Fathers Can Get Postpartum Depression

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Fact or Fiction: Fathers Can Get Postpartum Depression

Mothers are at higher risk for depression during and after pregnancy—and many continue to have depressive symptoms even as children grow up. But are fathers, whose bodies do not go through all of the same biological changes, also at risk for prenatal and postpartum depression?

May 18, 2010

By Katherine Harmon

Strange tales of lactating men or male pregnancy pains crop up in the news from time to time, despite the fact that men cannot get pregnant. Does that mean men are also susceptible to bouts with prenatal and postpartum depression?

Previous research has found rates of depression in new dads that range from 1 percent to 25 percent, but a new meta-analysis, published May 19 in JAMA, Journal of the American Medical Association, assessed 43 studies of a total of more than 28,000 fathers and found that an average of 10.4 percent suffered from depression sometime between the first trimester of their partner's pregnancy and the child's first birthday.

Rates of paternal depression were highest three to six months after birth (25.6 percent) and in the U.S. (14.1 percent versus the international rate of 8.2 percent). All of these numbers are considerably higher than the annual rate for adult male depression, which is 4.8 percent (but lower than the rate for maternal prenatal and postpartum depression, which is estimated to be 23.8 percent).

"This suggests that paternal prenatal and postpartum depression represents a significant public health concern," concluded the authors of the new paper.

Many moms get what is known as the baby blues, a passing sadness in the first few days after the birth of their child. But postpartum depression in both mothers and fathers is a condition that lasts longer, and "it may be very problematic for families and child outcomes," says James Paulson of the Department of Pediatrics at Eastern Virginia Medical School, the lead author of the meta-analysis. Extreme examples of parental depression can lead to suicide or to harm or neglect of the baby, but even mild to moderate depression in fathers has been shown to have lasting negative effects on their children for years to come.

Difficult diagnosis

Postpartum depression in moms has become a more widely discussed—and diagnosed—issue in recent years, but finding fathers who are going through something similar has proven difficult. Diagnostic questionnaires often focus on questions about sadness and other states that men typically are less likely to acknowledge. Some researchers have advocated to change the vocabulary to include issues such as irritability, emotional withdrawal and detachment, which can also be symptoms of depression in men, Paulson says.

Additionally, "there's a general cultural myth that men don't get depressed," says Will Courtenay, a psychotherapist and researcher in Oakland, Calif. who is completing research on paternal postpartum depression in collaboration with Harvard's Center for Men at McLean Hospital. "Because of that cultural myth, men oftentimes think they shouldn't get depressed, and when they are depressed they try to hide it."

Many new parents endure a host of symptoms often associated with depression (such as fatigue, change in appetite or anxiety), even if they have a clean bill of mental health. As a parent of an infant, "you don’t have time to eat a normal diet, you don't have time to get eight hours of sleep," Paulson notes. So "trying to parse out fatigue" and other normal indicators of depression can be tricky, he says. But for people who have clear cases of clinical depression, there are cues beyond typical parenting troubles, such as persistent detachment, feeling hopeless or worthless, or thoughts of death.

Finally, doctors and pediatricians usually see new fathers less often than they do new mothers, who are most frequently the parent bringing a baby in for appointments during the first year of life. Even though screening for depression in mothers is far from perfect, it is much easier to do given their more regular contact with the health care system, Paulson noted at a May 18 press briefing hosted by JAMA in New York.

Paternal biology

As the childbearers, women have been the primary focus for studies of physiological and psychological changes during and after pregnancy. But more recent literature has begun to uncover changes in dads as well. A few studies have found hormonal changes in men about to become fathers and those who have just had a child, Paulson notes, though he is quick to add that none have yet linked these changes specifically to depression. Many of these shifts, however, mirror those occurring during the same period in women's bodies, such as increases in estrogen and prolactin, Courtenay says.

The sleep deprivation that comes along with being a new parent can alter neurochemical balances in the brain, making some people with underlying risk factors more vulnerable to depression. "It's kind of a double whammy," Courtenay says. "All these hormonal changes and neurochemical changes in the brain due to sleep deprivation can wreak havoc on a man."

In part due to the paucity of research on paternal prenatal and postpartum depression, experts are still sketchy on the risk factors for fathers. A personal history of depression puts both mothers and fathers at a higher risk, as does a sick baby, financial strain or relationship problems. Add to that list the changing expectations pushing dads to become more involved parents, says Courtenay, and many new fathers are left feeling overwhelmed and at greater risk for anxiety and depressive symptoms.

In a study Courtenay is currently undertaking, initial data from some 1,500 fathers have shown that other risk factors include an unexpected pregnancy or unhappiness with the baby's gender.

Downsides of depressed dads

Like mothers who are depressed, fathers who suffer from depression can have negative impacts on their children's development years down the road.

"When Dad is depressed, Dad tends to interact less with the child and bonds less with the child," Paulson notes. He coauthored a study that found fathers with depression were less likely to read to their children, and those children were more likely to have relatively poor language skills.

A study of more than 10,000 children in the U.K., published in 2005 in The Lancet, found that "depression in fathers during the postnatal period was associated with adverse emotional and behavioral outcomes in children aged 3.5 years." This correlation was seen even when the researchers controlled for maternal depression, the authors, led by Paul Ramchandani of the University of Oxford, concluded.

Another study, published in 2008 in The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, found that children whose fathers had been depressed during their early infancy were more likely to have behavioral problems by the time they were school age—a finding Paulson calls "very alarming." The longitudinal study, also led by Ramchandani, found that kids whose fathers had been depressed in both the prenatal stage and the first month of infancy "had the highest risk of subsequent psychopathology." And the effect was especially strong in boys who had had depressed fathers.

Depression in dads also seems to correlate with depression in mothers. Although the relationship is not one-to-one, having a partner with this sort of depression seems to increase an individual's likelihood of having it, too. This should prompt clinicians to assess the partners of parents with depression, Paulson says. Currently, however, he notes, "we don't know what direction that influence moves."

Addressing dads' depression

Although he has been studying paternal postpartum depression for several years, Paulson was surprised to find a big difference between rates in the U.S. and those from studies based elsewhere. U.S. fathers had nearly twice the rate of paternal prenatal and postpartum depression, leading Paulson and his coauthor, Sharnail Bazemore, also of Eastern Virginia Medical School, to suggest further research on the "varying social norms and postpartum work practices cross-nationally."

As in mothers, postpartum depression in fathers seems to spike between three and six months after the birth of a child. Paulson speculates that this might have to do with the typical three-month term for maternity leave in the U.S., after which many mothers return to work, shifting responsibilities within the family. It is also an age at which children start exhibiting more challenging behavior, he notes.

Paulson recommends investigating treatment that focuses on whole families, addressing depression "as a family problem, not an individual problem."

Courtenay proposes ways to help prevent paternal—and maternal—depression from becoming a problem in the first place. With a growing checklist of risk factors, he says, the best thing to do is address any of them "before the baby comes along." If there is a history of depression, be prepared for a relapse and have plans in place for seeking treatment quickly. If there is strife in the relationship between the parents, seek counseling or other help before or during pregnancy. Or if a father-to-be is starting to feel anxious about his new role and responsibilities, he should enroll in a parenting class. "Putting that stuff in order beforehand" can help keep disruptive parental depression at bay, Courtenay notes.

The first step, researchers seem to agree, is improving awareness that paternal prenatal and postpartum depression exists and is likely to affect about one in 10 fathers. With more than 10,000 children being born each day in the U.S. and more than 14 percent of U.S. fathers experiencing some depression during pregnancy or the first year of infancy, "that's not an insignificant number" of men who will get depressed, Courtenay says.

But experts are making headway in informing the medical community—and the general public. Paulson notes that most of the studies he found on paternal depression have been published in the past several years, and other indicators are looking up, as well. Not too long ago, typing "paternal depression" into Google would return the suggestion: "did you mean maternal depression," he noted at the press conference today. The same search now quickly turns up more than 18,000 results.

Video: Grandparenting

All of the grandparents in this video clip appreciate that they do not have the responsibility—or as one grandmother said, “the drudgery”—of disciplining or caring for grandchildren “24-7.” Just about all those interviewed feel a close, positive attachment to their grandchildren. One adult grandchild explains that her close relationship with her grandmother has removed negative aspects of aging from her thoughts.

Video: Grandparents as Parents

In this video clip, you’ll hear from experts as well as adults who are presently acting as parents to their grandchildren. Everyone you will see concurs that this unexpected role in life brings joy and pride as well as difficulty and financial burden to the households in which grandparents find themselves as parents for a second time.

Video: Interview with Susan Beals: SIDS

Article: How Much Do You Know About Babies and Sleep? What's True and What's Not?

Babies are born without a sense of day and night, so their circadian rhythm, or daily activity schedule, hasn’t been set. One of the most important things new parents can do is help establish a strong internal clock in their newborns. Make sure they get lots of light during the day—and start dimming the activity level, sound level, and light levels in the evening

Most babies don’t sleep through the night. Even at a year old, more than 70 percent of babies are still waking their parents up in the wee hours at some point. Parents are best advised to expect some solid months of interrupted sleep after their babies arrive. Try and go to bed earlier and get some naps. Take advantage of the fact baby is asleep most of the day—even if they are awake during some hours when you’d rather be sleeping. And remember that the term “sleeping through the night” is something of a misnomer. If you watch babies overnight on video, you would see that these babies who are allegedly sleeping though are waking up—they are just not waking up their parents. They’ve figured out how to fall back to sleep on their own—at least some of the time. Hopefully, your baby will figure that out soon, too!

Around the world, the most common place to find a sleeping baby is next to his or her mother at night. Across cultures, babies typically sleep close to their parents—either in an adjacent futon or hammock, or on the same sleeping map. Even in developed countries, many parents end up with their babies in bed with them at night. And major pediatric officials recommend having babies sleep in the same room as their parents to make breastfeeding easier and prevent SIDS. However, there are significant risks in allowing a baby to sleep in a soft bed with an adult. Adults are cautioned that typical American beds are risky places for small babies to sleep—they could fall off or have trouble breathing if they are suffocated by bedding or a soft mattress.

Making sure babies always sleep on their backs is the number one thing you can do to prevent SIDS, but you also want to make sure that you:

• Quit smoking and make sure everyone else in baby’s household does too. Babies who are exposed to cigarette smoke—during pregnancy and after they are born—are at increased risk for SIDS.
• Keep them away from the soft stuff. There will be time for those cute stuffed animals and soft pillows—but not in a baby’s crib. They could pose a suffocation hazard for a small child. Today’s fashion in nursery décor is Spartan and simple.
• Get to the doctor. Keeping your baby healthy—immunized to common diseases and treated for common respiratory problems—will help prevent SIDS. Sick babies seem to be more susceptible.
• Breastfeed. Breastfed babies don’t get SIDS as frequently and we’re not sure whether that is because their sleep is lighter or because breastmilk is protective against infection—or both.
• Offer a pacifier. Studies seem to indicate that babies who suck while they are sleeping don’t sleep as deeply and seem to be less prone to SIDS.
• Room-share. Experts don’t understand why, but babies who sleep in their parents’ room – and who nap with an adult present-- seem to be at reduced risk for SIDS. The activity around the newborn may keep them from settling into too deep a sleep and being unable to wake up. Experts advise putting newborns to sleep in something portable—like a bassinet—and moving them around with you.

Video: Sleep in Infancy and Toddlerhood

Video discusses the importance of infant sleep for brain development, immune system development, etc. There is an interview with a mother about newborn sleep habits, and interviews with Dougla Teti, PhD, Penn State U., and Charles Super, PhD, U of Connecticut, on sleep consolidation.

Video: Brain Development Animation: Infants and Toddlers

This animation provides two perspectives of brain development in infants and toddlers. A microscopic view highlights the formation of myelin on the connecting fibers (axons) of neurons. A macroscopic view shows the brain growing in step with the enlargement of the infant’s head.

Video: Cognitive Development in Infancy: Object Permanence: Reaching in the Dark

Object permanence is the understanding that an object still exists even when it can no longer be observed. This video shows an infant reaching for an object in a normally lit room, where the object can be both seen and heard. Then the child is shown reaching for the same object in a dark room, where the object can be heard but not seen.

Video: Contingency Learning in Young Infants

Contingency learning is demonstrated by viewing an infant at both baseline and a learning phase. During the learning phase the infant learns that kicking her feet cause the mobile overhead to move.

Video: Development of Object Permanence in Infancy and Toddlerhood

This video discusses object permanence in infancy and toddlerhood including Piaget’s theory of object permanence; on-screen definitions are included. The video also shows footage of infants failing and passing the object permanence task in which a toy is hidden underneath a blanket to see if they will look for it.

Video: Physical Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood

Video depicts physical development in infancy which includes definitions of cephalocaudal and proximodistal development. There is an interview with Karen Adolph, PhD, NYU on the discontinuity (i.e., sudden growth spurts) of physical development. Video also includes brain development (e.g., growth of dendrites and myelination – includes on-screen definition).

Video: Physical Development in Infancy: Crawling

Video depicts an 8-month-old girl who is learning to crawl (rolling on stomach, wiggling legs, reaching out with arms, etc.) but not yet actually crawling. Video then shows an 8-month-old girl who is already easily crawling. Next is a 14-month-old who crawls in an unusual way (one leg sort of tucked under the body) but still moves quite quickly and easily.

Video: The First Two Years: Cognitive Development: A Brief Overview

Video: Physical Activity in Middle Childhood

Video: Sensorimotor Intelligence in Infancy and Toddlerhood

Video: Harlow's Studies on Dependency in Monkeys

Harry Harlow, an experimental psychologist, studied learning in infant monkeys. His observations led him to question the assumption of psychoanalytic and learning theorists that infants are attached to their mothers primarily because the mother satisfies the infant’s need for food. Harlow’s studies demonstrated the importance of “contact comfort” in infants: Baby monkeys preferred a soft “mother” to a wire mother. They even preferred a nonfeeding soft mother to a feeding wire mother as a safe haven when frightened or when exploring the world. Harlow concluded that the critical components of mothering seem to be touching, comforting, and holding. When scared, the infant monkey runs to the cloth mother for comfort. When placed in a strange environment, the infant monkey does not find comfort in the wire mother. However, the infant monkey clings to the cloth mother for comfort in this strange environment. This video shows that, in Harry Harlow’s experiments, infant monkeys much preferred a comforting soft mother who did not supply food to an uncomfortable wire mother with a feeding bottle.

Video: Parenting in Infancy and Toddlerhood

Video discusses the challenges of parenting in infancy and toddlerhood and includes an interview with Eva Pomerantz, PhD U of Illinois, who discusses the frustration of parenting a toddler who does not yet have self-regulation skills. Also includes an interview with Douglas Teti, PhD, Penn State U, discussing the different theories on parenting infants such as attachment theory (e.g., go to the baby right away if it wakes up in the night) as well as an interview with Kathleen Stassen Berger, PhD, City U of NY, regarding cultural differences in response to infant crying. The video also includes an interview with Nicole Forry, PhD, Child Trends, regarding poverty and parenting an infant.

Video: Emotional Development in Infancy: Separation Anxiety

Video: Emotional Development in Infancy: Stranger Fear

Video: Health in Infancy and Toddlerhood

Video discusses early childhood health including the decrease in infant mortality (due to factors such as clean water and immunizations). The video also includes a discussion of the positive effects of vaccines including an interview with Ranganai Matema, UNICEF Health Officer.

Video: Theories of Emotional Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood

This video discusses the different temperament styles of infants and toddlers.

Video: Emotional Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood

Predictors of Preschool Depression

A five-year study followed more than 1,700 children and found that depression in preschoolers is primarily predicted by two factors

August 31, 2009

By Christie Nicholson

Note: Below is the original script for an audio podcast.

The percentage of Americans using antidepressants doubled between 1996 and 2005. That number’s from a new study in the Archives of General Psychiatry. The reasons aren’t fully clear. But researchers think that a big factor is simple cultural change—it’s more and more acceptable to be on the drugs.

But another paper published in the Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry finds predictors, at least, for childhood depression.


Scientists followed more than 1,700 children from infants of five months to preschoolers of five years.

The top predictor for depression later in life, researchers found, is a difficult temperament at five months. And this means, "a child being fussy, being irritable, difficult to soothe. And a child that is particularly challenged by novel situations. So a child that is slow to adapt, or is fearful in new situations."

That's Sylvanna Cote from the University of Montreal.

And the second leading depression predictor is lifetime maternal depression: "We know from studies that are genetically informative, so twin studies or studies that have measures of the genotype of people, that depression runs in families. But of course genetics is not destiny, even though it's an important factor. So someone who is at risk because of genetic vulnerability may go on to develop depression or not, depending on the quality of care. And the quality of the family environment. So it's very important to realize that environment is a major factor and we can change people's environment."

Some 15 percent of preschoolers suffer from high levels of depression and anxiety
.

Cote stresses that treatments like cognitive behavioral therapy and properly prescribed medication have high success rates, so there is no reason mothers need to suffer—and put their children at risk, as well.

Video: Temperament in Infancy and Toddlerhood

The video discusses and defines temperament and includes an interview with Charles Super, PhD, U of Connecticut. The video includes definitions and discussions about Chess & Thomas research on “Easy," “Difficult” and “Slow to Warm up." The video also addresses measurement of temperament, emphasizes that it is biologically-based, and discusses the concept of “goodness of fit.”

Video: The First Two Years: Biosocial Development: A Brief Overview

Video: The First Two Years: Psychosocial Development

The infant grows and matures into a very social being through the development of social and emotional bonds. A person’s emotional development is greatly influenced by the first years of life as the infant develops a deeper understanding of and connection to these emotions and becomes self-aware. The four major theories of emotional development: psychoanalytic theory, behaviorism, cognitive theory, and sociocultural theory all outline ways that a person develops emotion which, in effect, impacts temperament, personality, and attachment to others.

Video: Emotional Development in Infancy: The Still-Face Procedure

Video depicts a mom and 4-month-old infant interacting face-to-face when suddenly the mom puts on a neutral facial expression and is not responsive to the infant (“still-face”). We can see the infant start to look away. Next shows a 5-month-old with his/her mother. We can see the infant start to look away and become upset.

Video: Fine Motor Skills in Infancy and Toddlerhood

Video includes a discussion of fine motor skills (typically focused in the hands and face). It includes an interview with Karen Adolph, PhD, NYU and discussion of developments such as the pincer grip (forefinger and thumb) which develops between 9 and 12 months of age. There is an interview with a mother discussing her child’s fine motor skills.

Video: Gross Motor Skills in Infancy and Toddlerhood

Video discusses motor development in infancy and toddlerhood. Includes an interview with Karen Adolph, PhD, NYU, discussing early motor skills (reaching, grasping, self-locomotion). There is a discussion of proximodistal and cephalocaudal patterns of motor development and environmental/cultural influences on motor development.

Video: Development of Language in Infancy: Research of Janet Werker on Infant Speech Perception

In the video, infants respond to and discriminate among speech sounds of native and non-native languages. Janet Werker discusses infant behaviors in relationship to certain speech sounds, the head-turning procedure used in this clip, and the conclusions this study has led to.

Video: Development of Language in Infancy: Research on Infant Gestures from Linda Acredolo and Susan Goodwyn

The use and benefits of baby signs are discussed. Baby signs are simple preverbal gestures that infants and toddlers can use to communicate about things in the world that they do not yet have words for. The use of baby signs can open up the lines of communication between baby and parents and can even reduce frustration in the child. Research has shown that the use of baby signs may have language, cognitive, and intelligence benefits.

Video: Event-Related Potential (ERP) Research

The laboratory of Debra Mills recorded and analyzed the brain-wave patterns of an infant who listened as a puppet recited words, both familiar and unfamiliar. This laboratory scene is captured in this video along with Mills discussing ERP (Event-Related Potentials) research, in particular research related to changes in brain organization (especially cerebral lateralization of language) that occur as children acquire language.

Video: Interview with Steven Pinker

Stephen Pinker has studied language acquisition in young children. In this clip, he talks about the ways in which children learn language.

Video: Language Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood

This video discusses language development in early infancy (e.g., starting at newborn phase talking about how newborns prefer to hear speech sounds over other types of sounds) into toddlerhood. The video includes a timeline of speech such as babbling, one-word phase, two-word, etc. Includes an interview with Toben Mintz, PhD, USC, about the noun bias (kids typically learn nouns before verbs). Finally the video addresses different theories of language acquisition.

Video: Studying the Development of Sign Language in Nicaragua and Interview with Noam Chomsky

Video: Cognitive Development in Infancy: Problem Solving

This video depicts a researcher in the lab with infants trying to solve a problem of obtaining an out-of-reach toy, which is resting on a blanket. An 8-month-old girl is shown failing the task and a 9-month-old boy is shown passing the task.

Video: Cognitive Development in Infancy: Manual Exploration of Pictures, Clip A

This video depicts American infants in a research lab. Infants are seated in a highchair touching photographs with their hands as if to grab the objects from the photos (manual exploration).

Video: Cognitive Development in Infancy: Manual Exploration of Pictures, Clip B

This video depicts infants in Africa in a field setting exploring photographs with their hands (manual exploration).

Video: Cognitive Development in Infancy: Manual Exploration of Pictures, Clip C

This video demonstrates the manual exploration of pictures in an infant from West Africa.

Video: Cognitive Development in Infancy: Toddlers' Tool Use

Video depicts a research study in which a toddler is being asked to obtain a toy by using one of several tool options. Video shows a toddler who struggles and does not choose the correct tool (a rake) with which to pull the toy closer. The experimenter then demonstrates how to use the rake to get the toy.

Video: Cognitive Development: Scale Errors: Car

Video depicts footage of a young boy (toddler) in a research lab attempting to get into a toy-size car that is way too small for him. The young boy keeps repeating the word “in”. This is footage from Deloache’s Scale Error studies.

Video: Cognitive Development: Scale Errors: Chair

In this brief video a toddler tries to sit in a very small toy chair to read a story.

Video: Cognitive Development: Scale Errors: Slide

In this brief video a toddler tries to go down a very small toy slide.

Video: Cognitive Development: The Development of Purposive Reasoning

In this video a girl is asked a series of questions about the purpose of a variety of animals that exist on the earth.

Video: Cognitive Development in Infancy: Problem Solving

Video: Cognitive Development in Infancy: The A-not-B Error: Clip A

The A-not-B-task is used to assess an infant’s understanding of object permanence. The task usually has the researcher hide an object under a cloth (A) where the infant can easily retrieve the object. After a few trials, the researcher moves the object under a second cloth (B) that is in reach of the infant while the infant watches. If the infant still looks under cloth A the infant has not mastered object permanence. This video demonstrates the A-not-B error in an 8-month-old girl who has not yet mastered object permanence.

Video: Cognitive Development in Infancy: The A-not-B Error: Clip B

Video: Nutrition in Infancy and Toddlerhood

This video discusses the importance of early nutrition, especially for brain development and discusses health benefits of breast milk (e.g., opportunity to pass on antibodies). It also includes an interview with a mother regarding breast feeding. Also covers early obesity.

Video: Nutritional Needs of Infants and Children: Breast Feeding Promotion

UNICEF is partnering with various government entities in the battle against malnourishment by promoting exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months of life. In the Philippines the rate of malnourishment is 30%. Malnourishment exists is other countries as well, such as Sierra Leone. UNICEF is promoting breastfeeding in these countries in hopes to reduce the number of children suffering from malnourishment.

Video: Nutritional Needs of Infants and Children: Worldwide Malnutrition

The negative impact of worldwide malnutrition is explained and demonstrated. Malnourishment is the world's most serious health problem and is the largest contributor to child mortality. In fact, 30% of children in the world are malnourished. One out of three children in Africa does not receive enough food to eat and half of the children in South Asia are stunted or dangerously thin. Under nutrition kills immunity, hinders learning, and perpetrates poverty. Human milk is the ideal nourishment of infants but only one third of children in the developing world are breastfed.

Video: Malnutrition and Children in Nepal

Video: Development of Attachment in Infancy and Toddlerhood

Video: Interview with Gilda Morelli

Video: Stranger Fear

Video: Parenting in Infancy: Beng Caretaking Practice: Carrying Babies

The video footage shows young Beng infants being carried using cloths strapped to others’ backs including the back of a young child (probably 6-10 years old). This clip also shows a mother using a mortar and pestle (repetitive motion) and an infant strapped to her back being lulled to sleep by the repetitive movement.

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