Chapter 103. Theories of Intelligence
Learning Objectives
Contrast the major theories of intelligence.
Identify the components of Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences.
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1. All humans share some fundamental similarities in cognition—perceiving the environment, learning and remembering information, thinking, solving problems, and using language. Yet there are differences among people in the effectiveness of these processes, and the concept of intelligence is used to describe individual differences in cognitive abilities.
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2. Most people talk about intelligence as though it were a single thing, somewhat like water in a bucket. We consider “bright” individuals as having lots of it—a full bucket—and “dull” people as having less. This common-sense view is challenged by the fact that brain damage may diminish one specific ability but not others, and by savant syndrome, a condition in which a person of very limited overall intelligence has a single ability that is truly exceptional, such as an amazing memory for music, numbers, or spatial relationships.
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3. Research by psychologist Charles Spearman supported the view that intelligence is a single general ability. Spearman administered many different tests of mental abilities, then used a statistical procedure called factor analysis to identify clusters of similar results, with each cluster defining a “factor” such as mathematical reasoning, spatial abilities, or verbal fluency.
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4. Spearman called these intelligence clusters s factors because each indicated a specific ability. However, Spearman noted that people who were high on one factor tended to be high on the others, and those with low scores on one test tended to have low scores on all of them. Spearman argued that underlying all mental abilities was a single g factor, or general intelligence.
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5. Psychologist Louis Thurstone, who also used factor analysis, initially argued that the g factor doesn’t exist. Instead, he claimed that humans have seven s factors, which he called the primary mental abilities: word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial visualization, number facility, associative memory, reasoning, and perceptual speed. However, later in his career, he proposed a compromise position, stating that intelligence consists of both a general component based on overall brain functioning and several specific components (such as verbal and mathematical skills) that can be influenced by education and practice.
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6. Psychologist Howard Gardner built on Thurstone’s view to propose that humans have eight or nine multiple intelligences, each type relatively independent of the others, and each controlled by a different part of the brain. In addition to the widely accepted distinction between verbal and mathematical abilities, Gardner identified distinct aptitudes for musical accomplishment, for spatially analyzing the visual world, for mastering movement skills (as in dance or sports), and for insightfully understanding ourselves, others, our natural environment, and the meaning and purpose of our lives.
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7. Psychologist Robert Sternberg argued that Gardner’s multiple intelligences could actually be reduced to three basic forms of intelligence. Sternberg’s triarchic theory proposes that people differ in their analytical intelligence (academic problem solving), their creative intelligence (generating original ideas), and their practical intelligence (accomplishing real-life tasks in their natural context).
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8. Other researchers emphasize intelligence as effective functioning in our social environment. Social intelligence is our ability to understand and interact with the other people around us. Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions. Those who are socially and emotionally “smart” can not only manage their own emotions but also assess other people’s emotions and react appropriately.
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9. Psychologists now agree that intelligence is a social construct, a concept invented to describe individual differences in cognitive ability. As a result, there is no universally accepted definition of intelligence. Each culture defines intelligence in a slightly different way, emphasizing the characteristics that help people function effectively in that particular environment. In other words, a culture’s definition of intelligence is a reflection of what that culture values in a human being.
Practice 1: Comparing Theories of Intelligence
Practice 1: Comparing Theories of Intelligence
Roll over each theory of intelligence to see a description.
Spearman’s general intelligence (g)
Thurstone’s primary mental abilities
Gardner’s multiple intelligences
Sternberg’s triarchic theory
Social and emotional intelligence
Key aspects:
There is one general form of intelligence that underlies all mental abilities. It is the earliest comprehensive theory of intelligence, based on evidence from factor analysis.
Rather than one general form of intelligence, there are seven specific forms of intelligence: word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial visualization, number facility, associative memory, reasoning, and perceptual speed.
Rather than one general form of intelligence, there are eight or nine specific intelligences, each controlled by a different part of the brain. It is based partly on evidence from savant syndrome.
There are three specific forms of intelligence, based not on the type of task (language, music, math, art, etc.), but on adapting to a particular context: academic context (analytical intelligence), novel context (creative intelligence), and real-world context (practical intelligence).
Conventional tests of intelligence do not measure the most important abilities for success in jobs and relationships, namely the ability to understand and interact effectively with other people, and the ability to understand and regulate one’s own emotions.
Practice 2: Exploring Multiple Intelligences
Practice 2: Exploring Multiple Intelligences
Use the tab key to reveal a description and example of each of Gardner's types of intelligence.
According to Howard Gardner, spatial intelligence is the ability to perceive the world accurately and to recreate or transform aspects of that world. These people often have acute sensitivity to visual details, can draw their ideas graphically, and can orient themselves easily in 3-D space.
Pablo Picasso, artist
People who have a lot of spatial intelligence would probably be successful in careers such as a sculptor, an architect, or a surveyor
According to Howard Gardner, linguistic intelligence is the ability to use language and display sensitivity to the order of things. These people can argue, persuade, entertain, or instruct through the spoken word.
T. S. Eliot, poet
People who have a lot of linguistic intelligence would probably be successful in careers such as a writer, a poet, or a translator.
According to Howard Gardner, logical-mathematical intelligence is the ability to see the intelligence of numbers and logic, and the ability to handle chains of reasoning and recognize patterns and order. These people think in terms of cause and effect and can create and test hypotheses.
Albert Einstein, scientist
People who have a lot of logical-mathematical intelligence would probably be successful in careers such as a mathematician or a scientist.
According to Howard Gardner, naturalist intelligence is the ability to understand, categorize, and explain patterns encountered in the natural world. These people observe, interpret, and construct meaning from the natural world.
Charles Darwin, biologist
People who have a lot of naturalist intelligence would probably be successful in careers such as a botanist, a farmer, or a forestry worker
According to Howard Gardner, musical intelligence is sensitivity to pitch, melody, rhythm, and tone. These people can sing in tune, keep time to music, and listen to musical selections with discernment.
Igor Stravinsky, composer
People who have a lot of musical intelligence would probably be successful in careers such as a composer, a musician, or a singer.
According to Howard Gardner, intrapersonal intelligence is access to one's emotional life as a means of understanding oneself and others. These people can easily access their own feelings, discriminate among different emotional states, and use this knowledge to enrich and guide their own lives.
Sigmund Freud, psychiatrist
People who have a lot of intrapersonal intelligence would probably be successful in careers such as a therapist, a social worker, or a philosopher.
According to Howard Gardner, interpersonal intelligence is the ability to understand people and relationships. These people can perceive and respond to moods, temperaments, intentions, and the desires of others.
Mahatma Gandhi, leader
People who have a lot of interpersonal intelligence would probably be successful in careers such as a politician, a salesperson, or a religious leader.
According to Howard Gardner, bodily-kinesthetic intelligence is the ability to use the body skillfully and handle objects adroitly. These are hands-on people with good tactile sensitivity.
Martha Graham, dancer
People who have a lot of bodily-kinesthetic intelligence would probably be successful in careers such as an athlete, a dancer, or a surgeon
Quiz 1
Quiz 1
Match the terms with their descriptions by dragging each colored circle to the appropriate gray circle. When all the circles have been placed, select the CHECK ANSWER button.
Quiz 2
Quiz 2
Drag the label for each of Gardner’s types of intelligence to the gray area in front of the appropriate description. When all the labels have been placed, select the CHECK ANSWER button.
Conclusion