Left: In 1980, a single humpback whale was first seen whacking the water with his tail, a foraging technique called “lobtail feeding.” Researchers used naturalistic observation to track the spread of this feeding technique throughout a humpback whale population (Allen & others, 2013; de Waal, 2013).

Right: After media reports of aggressive behavior by adult spectators at Canadian youth hockey games, psychologist Anne Bowker and five other observers (2009) systematically recorded the comments of adult spectators at youth hockey games. They found that two-thirds of the comments were directed at the players rather than the officials, and that most comments were positive and encouraging rather than critical.