Superstitious Rituals: Behaviors Shaped by Accidental Reinforcement LeBron James is one of the many professional athletes who has developed a superstitious pregame routine (Wargo, 2008). Basketball fans are familiar with “The Ritual,” a complex sequence that includes carefully choreographed handshakes with teammates and culminates with James tossing chalk high into the air in front of cheering (or jeering) spectators.

Skinner (1948b) pointed out that superstitions may result when a behavior is accidentally reinforced—that is, when reinforcement is just a coincidence. So although it was really just a fluke that wearing your “lucky” shirt was followed by a win, the illusion of reinforcement can shape and strengthen behavior. And, adding to their reinforcing qualities, Lysann Damisch and her colleagues (2010) found that engaging in superstitious behaviors actually improved performance, probably because doing so enhanced self-confidence.

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