KEY TERMS
behaviorism case study collectivistic cultures comparative psychology confirmation bias confounding variable control group or control condition correlation coefficient correlational study critical thinking cross- culture demand characteristics dependent variable descriptive research double- empirical evidence ethnocentrism evolutionary psychology experimental group or experimental condition experimental research functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) functionalism humanistic psychology hypothesis independent variable individualistic cultures magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) meta- natural experiment naturalistic observation negative correlation neuroscience operational definition placebo effect placebo positive correlation positive psychology positron emission tomography (PET) scan pseudoscience psychiatry psychoanalysis psychology random assignment random selection replicate representative sample sample scientific method statistically significant statistics structuralism survey testing effect theory variable | A mathematical indication that research results are not very likely to have occurred by chance. A finding that two factors vary systematically in opposite directions, one increasing as the other decreases. The attitudes, values, beliefs, and behaviors shared by a group of people and communicated from one generation to another. Process in which subjects are selected randomly from a larger group such that every group member has an equal chance of being included in the study. A statistical technique that involves combining and analyzing the results of many research studies on a specific topic in order to identify overall trends. Early school of psychology that emphasized studying the purpose, or function, of behavior and mental experiences. A method of investigation used to demonstrate cause- A fake substance, treatment, or procedure that has no known direct effects. The study of the nervous system, especially the brain. Scientific procedures that involve systematically observing behavior in order to describe the relationship among behaviors and events. A study investigating the effects of a naturally occurring event on the research participants. The scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Cultures that emphasize the needs and goals of the individual over the needs and goals of the group. An invasive imaging technique that provides color- The factor that is observed and measured for change in an experiment, thought to be influenced by the independent variable; also called the outcome variable. The study of positive emotions and psychological states, positive individual traits, and the social institutions that foster positive individuals and communities. In an experiment, the group of participants who are exposed to all experimental conditions, except the independent variable; the group against which changes in the experimental group are compared. A research strategy that allows the precise calculation of how strongly related two factors are to each other. An intensive study of a single individual or small group of individuals. A precise description of how the variables in a study will be manipulated or measured. A noninvasive imaging technique that uses magnetic fields to map brain activity by measuring changes in the brain’s blood flow and oxygen levels. A finding that two factors vary systematically in the same direction, increasing or decreasing together. The purposely manipulated factor thought to produce change in an experiment; also called the treatment variable. Fake or false science that makes claims based on little or no scientific evidence. In a research study, subtle cues or signals expressed by the researcher that communicate the kind of response or behavior that is expected from the participant. The active process of minimizing preconceptions and biases while evaluating evidence, determining the conclusions that can reasonably be drawn from evidence, and considering alternative explanations for research findings or other phenomena. The branch of psychology that studies the behavior of different animal species. A questionnaire or interview designed to investigate the opinions, behaviors, or characteristics of a particular group. School of psychology and theoretical viewpoint that emphasizes the study of observable behaviors, especially as they pertain to the process of learning. Early school of psychology that emphasized studying the most basic components, or structures, of conscious experiences. Medical specialty area focused on the diagnosis, treatment, causes, and prevention of mental and behavioral disorders. The systematic observation and recording of behaviors as they occur in their natural setting. A selected segment that very closely parallels the larger population being studied on relevant characteristics. To repeat or duplicate a scientific study in order to increase confidence in the validity of the original findings. A tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables; a testable prediction or question. A branch of mathematics used by researchers to organize, summarize, and interpret data. A factor or variable other than the ones being studied that, if not controlled, could affect the outcome of an experiment; also called an extraneous variable. The tendency to seek out evidence that confirms an existing belief while ignoring evidence that might contradict or undermine the belief. Verifiable evidence that is based upon objective observation, measurement, and/or experimentation. The process of assigning participants to experimental conditions so that all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to any of the conditions or groups in the study. The belief that one’s own culture or ethnic group is superior to all others and the related tendency to use one’s own culture as a standard by which to judge other cultures. Cultures that emphasize the needs and goals of the group over the needs and goals of the individual. A numerical indication of the magnitude and direction of the relationship (the correlation) between two variables. Personality theory and form of psychotherapy that emphasizes the role of unconscious factors in personality and behavior. A factor that can vary, or change, in ways that can be observed, measured, and verified. In an experiment, the group of participants who are exposed to all experimental conditions, including the independent variable. School of psychology and theoretical viewpoint that emphasizes each person’s unique potential for psychological growth and self- A noninvasive imaging technique that produces highly detailed images of the body’s structures and tissues, using electromagnetic signals generated by the body in response to magnetic fields. Any change attributed to a person’s beliefs and expectations rather than to an actual drug, treatment, or procedure. Branch of psychology that studies the effects of culture on behavior and mental processes. A selected segment of the population used to represent the group that is being studied. An experimental control in which neither the participants nor the researchers interacting with the participants are aware of the group or condition to which the participants have been assigned. The application of principles of evolution, including natural selection, to explain psychological processes and phenomena. A tentative explanation that tries to integrate and account for the relationship of various findings and observations. A set of assumptions, attitudes, and procedures that guide researchers in creating questions to investigate, in generating evidence, and in drawing conclusions. The finding that practicing retrieval of information from memory produces better retention than restudying the same information for an equivalent amount of time. |
Kenneth Bancroft Clark (1914–2005)
Charles Darwin (1809-
Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)
G. Stanley Hall (1844–1924)
William James (1842–1910)
Abraham Maslow (1908–1970)
Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936)
Carl Rogers (1902–1987)
B. F. Skinner (1904–1990)
Francis C. Sumner (1895–1954)
Edward B. Titchener (1867–1927)
Margaret Floy Washburn (1871–1939)
John B. Watson (1878–1958)
Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920)