Closing Thoughts

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One theme throughout this chapter has been the quest to discover general laws of learning that would apply across virtually all species and situations. Watson was convinced that these laws were contained in the principles of classical conditioning. Skinner contended that they were to be found in the principles of operant conditioning. In a sense, they were both right. Thousands of experiments have shown that behavior can be reliably and predictably influenced by classical and operant conditioning procedures. By and large, the general principles of classical and operant conditioning hold up quite well across a wide range of species and situations.

But you’ve also seen that the general principles of classical and operant conditioning are just that—general, not absolute. Such researchers as John Garcia and Marian and Keller Breland recognized the importance of a species’ evolutionary and biological heritage in acquiring new behaviors. Other researchers, such as Edward Tolman and Robert Rescorla, drew attention to the important role played by cognitive processes in learning. And Albert Bandura’s investigations of observational learning underscored that classical and operant conditioning principles could not account for all learning.

Another prominent theme has been the adaptive nature of learning. Faced with an ever-changing environment, an organism’s capacity to learn is critical to adaptation and survival. Clearly, there are survival advantages in being able to learn that a neutral stimulus can signal an important upcoming event, as in classical conditioning. An organism also enhances its odds of survival by being responsive to the consequences of its actions, as in operant conditioning. And, by observing the actions and consequences experienced by others, behaviors can be acquired through imitation. Thus, it is probably because these abilities are so useful in so many environments that the basic principles of learning are demonstrated with such consistency across so many species.

In the final analysis, it’s probably safe to say that the most important consequence of learning is that it promotes the adaptation of many species, including humans, to their unique environments. Were it not for the adaptive nature of learning, Erv would probably have gotten trapped in the attic again!

PSYCH FOR YOUR LIFE

Using Learning Principles to Improve Your Self-Control

Self-control often involves choosing between two reinforcers: (1) a long-term reinforcer that will provide gratification at some point in the future or (2) a short-term reinforcer that provides immediate gratification but gets in the way of obtaining a long-term reinforcer. Objectively, the benefits of the long-term reinforcer typically far outweigh the benefits associated with the short-term, immediate reinforcer. Yet despite our commitment to the long-term goal, sometimes we choose a short-term reinforcer that conflicts with it. Why?

The Shifting Value of Reinforcers

The key is that the relative value of reinforcers can shift over time (Ainslie, 1975, 1992; Rachlin, 1974, 2000). Let’s use an example to illustrate this principle. Suppose you sign up for an 8:00 A.M. class that meets every Tuesday morning. On Monday night, the short-term reinforcer (getting extra sleep on Tuesday morning) and the long-term reinforcer (getting a good course grade at the end of the semester) are both potential future reinforcers. Neither reinforcer is immediately available. So, when you compare these two future reinforcers, the value of making a good grade easily outweighs the value of getting extra sleep on Tuesday morning. That’s why you duly set the alarm clock for 6:00 A.M. so you will get to class on time.

Consequently, when your alarm goes off on Tuesday morning, the situation is fundamentally different. The short-term reinforcer is now immediately available: staying in that warm, comfy bed. Compared with Monday night when you set the alarm, the subjective value of extra sleep has increased significantly. Although making a good grade in the course is still important to you, its subjective value has not increased on Tuesday morning. After all, that long-term reinforcer is still in the distant future.

At the moment you make your decision, you choose whichever reinforcer has the greater apparent value to you. At that moment, if the subjective value of the short-term reinforcer outweighs that of the long-term reinforcer, you’re very likely to choose the short-term reinforcer (Fishbach & others, 2010). In other words, you’ll probably stay in bed.

When you understand how the subjective values of reinforcers shift over time, the tendency to impulsively cave in to available short-term reinforcers starts to make more sense. The availability of an immediate, short-term reinforcer can temporarily outweigh the subjective value of a long-term reinforcer in the distant future (Steel, 2007). How can you counteract these momentary surges in the subjective value of short-term reinforcers? Fortunately, there are several strategies that can help you overcome the temptation of short-term reinforcers and improve your self-control (Fishbach & others, 2010; Kruglanski & others, 2010).

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  1. Strategy 1: Precommitment

    Precommitment involves making an advance commitment to your long-term goal, one that will be difficult to change when a conflicting reinforcer becomes available (Fujita & Roberts, 2010). In the case of getting to class on time, a precommitment could involve setting multiple alarms and putting them far enough away that you will be forced to get out of bed to shut each of them off. Or you could ask an early-rising friend to call you on the phone and make sure you’re awake.

  2. Strategy 2: Self-Reinforcement

    Sometimes long-term goals seem so far away that your sense of potential future reinforcement seems weak compared with immediate reinforcers. One strategy to increase the subjective value of the long-term reinforcer is to use self-reinforcement for current behaviors related to your long-term goal (Fishbach & others, 2010). For example, promise yourself that if you spend two hours studying in the library, you’ll reward yourself by watching a movie.

    It’s important, however, to reward yourself only after you perform the desired behavior. If you say to yourself, “Rather than study tonight, I’ll go to this party and make up for it by studying tomorrow,” you’ve blown it. You’ve just reinforced yourself for not studying! This would be akin to trying to increase bar-pressing behavior in a rat by giving the rat a pellet of food before it pressed the bar. Obviously, this contradicts the basic principle of positive reinforcement in which behavior is followed by the reinforcing stimulus.

  3. Strategy 3: Stimulus Control

    Remember, environmental stimuli can act as discriminative stimuli that “set the occasion” for a particular response (Kruglanski & others, 2010). In effect, the environmental cues that precede a behavior can acquire some control over future occurrences of that behavior. So be aware of the environmental cues that are likely to trigger unwanted behaviors, such as studying in the kitchen (a cue for eating) or in an easy chair in the living room (a cue for watching television). Then replace those cues with others that will help you achieve your long-term goals.

    For example, always study in a specific location, whether it’s in the library, in an empty classroom, or at a table or desk in a certain corner of your apartment. Over time, these environmental cues will become associated with the behavior of studying.

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  4. Strategy 4: Focus on the Delayed Reinforcer

    The cognitive aspects of learning also play a role in choosing behaviors associated with long-term reinforcers (Mischel, 1996; Mischel & others, 2004). When faced with a choice between an immediate and a delayed reinforcer, focus your attention on the delayed reinforcer. You’ll be less likely to impulsively choose the short-term reinforcer (Kruglanski & others, 2010).

    Practically speaking, this means that if your goal is to save money for school, don’t fantasize about a new car or expensive shoes. Focus instead on the delayed reinforcement of achieving your long-term goal (Kross & others, 2010). Imagine yourself proudly walking across the stage and receiving your college degree. Visualize yourself fulfilling your long-term career goals. The idea in selectively focusing on the delayed reinforcer is to mentally bridge the gap between the present and the ultimate attainment of your future goal. One of our students, a biology major, put a picture of a famous woman biologist next to her desk to help inspire her to study.

  5. Strategy 5: Observe Good Role Models

    Observational learning is another strategy you can use to improve self-control (Maddux & others, 2010). In a series of classic studies, psychologist Walter Mischel found that children who observed others choose a delayed reinforcer over an immediate reinforcer were more likely to choose the delayed reinforcer themselves (Kross & others, 2010; Mischel, 1996). So look for good role models. Observing others who are currently behaving in ways that will ultimately help them realize their long-term goals can make it easier for you to do the same.