discoveringpsych7e

Closing Thoughts

So, what conclusions can we draw about the debates surrounding intelligence, including the role of heredity in mental ability?

First, it’s clear that the IQ score of any individual—regardless of his or her racial, social, or economic group—is the result of a complex interaction among genetic and environmental factors. Second, environmental factors are much more likely than genetic factors to account for average IQ differences among distinct groups of people (Ceci & Williams, 2009; Nisbett & others, 2012). Third, within any given group of people, IQ differences among people are due at least as much to environmental influences as they are to genetic influences (Plomin & Spinath, 2004). And finally, IQ scores reflect what IQ tests are designed to measure—a particular group of mental abilities.

As we’ve seen throughout this chapter, we draw on many different types of mental abilities to solve problems, adapt to our environment, and communicate with others. Our culture tends to define “intelligence” in terms of intellectual ability. However, as Tom’s story in the Prologue illustrates, social intelligence is an important ingredient in everyday life. Cognitive flexibility and creative thinking also contribute to our ability to successfully adapt to our particular environment. Can you learn to be more creative? We invite you to attend “A Workshop on Creativity” in the Psych for Your Life section on the next page.

308

PSYCH FOR YOUR LIFE

A Workshop on Creativity

Creativity can be defined as a group of cognitive processes used to generate useful, original, and novel ideas or solutions to problems (Hennessey & Amabile, 2010; Runco, 2007). Notice that usefulness, along with originality, is involved in judging creativity. An idea can be highly original, but if it lacks usefulness, it is not regarded as creative.

Although we typically think of creativity in terms of artistic expression, the act of creativity is almost always linked to the process of solving some problem. In that sense, creativity can occur in virtually any area of life.

Can you learn to be more creative? In general, creativity experts agree that you can. Although there is no simple formula that guarantees creative success, a few basic ingredients are central to the process of creative thinking. Here are several suggestions that can enhance your ability to think creatively.

Choose the goal of creativity.

Psychologists have found that virtually everyone possesses the intelligence and cognitive processes needed to be creative (Weisberg, 1988, 1993). But the creative individual values creativity as a personal goal. Without the personal goal of creativity, the likelihood of doing something creative is slim (Hennessey, 2010).
Reinforce creative behavior.

People are most creative when motivated by their own interest, the enjoyment of a challenge, and a personal sense of satisfaction and fulfillment (Amabile, 1996, 2001; Gilson & Madjar, 2011). This is called intrinsic motivation. In contrast, when people are motivated by external rewards, such as money or grades, they are displaying extrinsic motivation.

Researchers used to believe that extrinsic rewards made creative behavior much less likely. New research, however, seems to demonstrate that rewards can increase creative behavior in a person who has some training in generating creative solutions to problems (Eisenberger & others, 1998). When people know that creative behavior will be rewarded, they are more likely to behave in a creative way (Eisenberger & Cameron, 1996).
Engage in problem finding.

In many cases, the real creative leap involves recognizing that a problem exists. This is referred to as problem finding (Kaufman & Sternberg, 2010). We often overlook creative opportunities by dismissing trivial annoyances rather than recognizing them as potential problems to be solved.

For example, consider the minor annoyance experienced by a man named Art Fry. Fry, a researcher for 3M Corporation, regularly sang in his church choir. To locate the hymns quickly during the Sunday service, Fry used little scraps of paper to mark their places. But the scraps of paper would sometimes fall out when Fry stood up to sing, and he’d have to fumble to find the right page (Kaplan, 1990).

Leo Cullum The New Yorker Collection/The Cartoon Bank

While sitting in church, Fry recognized the “problem” and came up with a relatively simple solution. If you put a substance that is sticky, but not too sticky, on the scraps of paper, they’ll stay on the page and you can take them off when they are not needed anymore.

If you haven’t already guessed, Art Fry invented Post-it notes. The formula for the adhesive had been discovered years earlier at 3M, but nobody could imagine a use for a glue that did not bond permanently. The mental set of the 3M researchers was to find stronger glues, not weaker ones. Fry’s story demonstrates the creative value of recognizing problems instead of simply dismissing them.

A technique called bug listing is one useful strategy to identify potential problems. Bug listing involves creating a list of things that annoy, irritate, or bug you or other people. Such everyday annoyances are problems in need of creative solutions.
Acquire relevant knowledge.

Creativity requires a good deal of preparation (Weisberg, 1993). Acquiring a solid knowledge base increases your potential for recognizing how to creatively extend your knowledge or apply it in a new way. As the famous French chemist Louis Pasteur said, “Chance favors the prepared mind.”
Try different approaches.

Creative people are flexible in their thinking. They step back from problems, turn them over, and mentally play with possibilities. By being flexible and imaginative, people seeking creative solutions generate many different responses. This is called divergent thinking because it involves moving away (or diverging) from the problem and considering it from a variety of perspectives (Baer, 1993).

Looking for analogies is one technique to encourage divergent thinking. In problem solving, an analogy is the recognition of some similarity or parallel between two objects or events that are not usually compared. Similarities can be drawn in terms of the objects’ operations, functions, purposes, materials, or other characteristics.

309

MYTH SCIENCE

Is it true that you’re either creative or you’re not—there’s nothing you can do to increase creativity?

For example, consider inventor Dean Kamen’s ingenious “self-balancing human transporter,” the Segway, which is modeled on the human body. As Kamen (2001) explains, “There’s a gyroscope that acts like your inner ear, a computer that acts like your brain, motors that act like your muscles, and wheels that act like your feet.” Rather than using brakes, an engine, or a steering wheel, sophisticated sensors detect subtle shifts in body weight to maintain direction, speed, and balance. Designed for riding on sidewalks, the Segway can move at speeds up to 17 mph and can carry the average rider for a full day.

6. Exert effort and expect setbacks.

Flashes of insight or inspiration can play a role in creativity, but they usually occur only after a great deal of work. Whether you’re trying to write a brilliant term paper or design the next Angry Birds video game, creativity requires effort and persistence.

Finally, the creative process is typically filled with obstacles and setbacks. The best-selling novelist Stephen King endured years of rejection of his manuscripts before his first book was published. Thomas Edison tried thousands of filaments before he created the first working light bulb. In the face of obstacles and setbacks, the creative person perseveres.

To summarize our workshop on creativity, we’ll use the letters of the word create as an acronym. Thus, the basic ingredients of creativity are:

Choose the goal of creativity.

Reinforce creative behavior.

Engage in problem finding.

Acquire relevant knowledge.

Try different approaches.

Exert effort and expect setbacks.

An Icon of Creativity: “Think Different” Steve Jobs, founder of Apple Computers, was responsible for groundbreaking products like the iPod, iPhone, and iPad that revolutionized entire industries. He was also the founder of Pixar, the animation studio that created Toy Story, Wall-E, and other hits. In a 1995 interview, Jobs said, “Creativity is just connecting things. When you ask creative people how they did something, they feel a little guilty because they didn’t really do it, they just saw something. . . . They were able to connect experiences they’ve had and synthesize new things. . . . A lot of people in our industry haven’t had very diverse experiences. So they don’t have enough dots to connect, and they end up with very linear solutions without a broad perspective on the problem. The broader one’s understanding of the human experience, the better design we will have.”

AP Photo/Paul Sakuma