We began this chapter with a prologue about Fern trying to help a stranger in a strange city. As it turned out, Fern’s social perceptions of the man were inaccurate: He was not a homeless person living on the streets of San Francisco. As simple as this incident was, it underscored a theme that was repeatedly echoed throughout our subsequent discussions of person perception, attribution, and attitudes. Our subjective impressions, whether they are accurate or not, play a pivotal role in how we perceive and think about other people.
A different theme emerged in our later discussions of conformity, obedience, helping behavior, and hurting behavior. Social and situational factors, especially the behavior of others in the same situation, can have powerful effects on how we act at a given moment. But like Fern, each of us has the freedom to choose how we respond in a given situation. When we’re aware of the social forces that influence us, it can be easier for us to choose wisely.
In the final analysis, we are social animals who often influence one another’s thoughts, perceptions, and actions, sometimes in profound ways. In the following Psych for Your Life section, we’ll look at some of the ways that social psychological insights have been applied by professional persuaders—
The Persuasion Game
At the time, Sandy’s and Don’s daughter, Laura, was only 3 1/2 years old, happily munching her Cheerios and doodling pictures in the butter on her bread. Don sat across from her at the kitchen table, reading a draft of this chapter. “Don’t play with your food, Laura,” Don said without looking up.
”Okay, Daddy,” she chirped. “Daddy, are you in a happy mood?” Don paused. “Yes, I’m in a happy mood, Laura,” he said thoughtfully. “Are you in a happy mood?”
“Yes, Daddy,” Laura replied as she made the banana peel dance around her placemat. “Daddy, will you get me a Mermaid Barbie doll for my birthday?”
Ah, so young and so clever! From very early in life, we learn the basics of persuasion—the deliberate attempt to influence the attitudes or behavior of another person in a situation in which that person has some freedom of choice. Clearly, Laura had figured out one basic rule: She’s more likely to persuade Mom or Dad when they’re in “a happy mood.”
Professional persuaders often manipulate people’s attitudes and behavior using techniques based on two fundamental social norms: the rule of reciprocity and the rule of commitment (Cialdini & Sagarin, 2005). Here we’ll provide you with some practical suggestions to avoid being taken in by persuasion techniques.
The Rule of Reciprocity
The rule of reciprocity is a simple but powerful social norm (Burger & others, 2009; Shen & others, 2011). If someone gives you something or does you a favor, you feel obligated to return the favor. So after a classmate lets you copy her lecture notes for the class session you missed, you feel obligated to return a favor when she asks for one.
The “favor” can be almost anything freely given, such as a free food sample in a grocery store, a free gardening workshop at your local hardware store, or a free guide, booklet, planning kit, or trial. The rule of reciprocity is part of the sales strategy used by companies that offer “free” in-
Technically, you are under “no obligation” to buy anything. Nonetheless, the tactic often creates an uncomfortable sense of obligation, so you do feel pressured to reciprocate by buying the product (Cialdini, 2009).
One strategy that uses the rule of reciprocity is called the door-
MYTH SCIENCE
Is it true that people who say no to a large request are more easily able to say no to smaller requests that follow?
The rule of reciprocity is also operating in the that’s-
The Rule of Commitment
Another powerful social norm is the rule of commitment. Once you make a public commitment, there is psychological and interpersonal pressure on you to behave consistently with your earlier commitment. The foot-
First, the persuader makes a small request that you’re likely to agree to. For example, she might stop you on the street and ask you to sign a petition supporting some social cause. By agreeing to do so, you’ve made a small commitment to the social cause. At that point, she has gotten her “foot in the door.” Next, the persuader asks you to comply with a second, larger request, such as making a donation to the group she represents. Because of your earlier commitment, you feel psychologically pressured to behave consistently by now agreeing to the larger commitment (Cialdini, 2009).
The rule of commitment is also operating in the low-
Here’s an example of the low-
At that point, the salesman comes back from his manager’s office looking dejected. “I’m terribly sorry,” the car salesman says. “My manager won’t let me sell the car at that price because we’d lose too much money on the deal. I told him I would even take a lower commission, but he won’t budge.”
Notice what has happened. The attractive low-
Defending Against Persuasion Techniques
It is increasingly important to be aware that persuasive messages can impact your attitudes and behavior. For several years now, online advertisers have targeted messages directly to you based on your online behavior, such as your browsing history (Ur & others, 2012). But they may now also be targeting you based on your personality.
Researchers at the University of Cambridge teamed up with researchers at Microsoft and found that some of your personality traits, such as how outgoing or anxious you are, can be predicted from your Facebook profile (Bachrach & others, 2012). Related to this, other researchers found improved persuasion when ads were matched to personality (Hirsh & others, 2012). Specifically, for an ad for a cell phone, outgoing people responded best when they were promised “you’ll always be where the excitement is,” and anxious people responded best when they were told that the phone would help them “stay safe and secure.”
So, in a world where you are increasingly targeted, how can you reduce the likelihood that you’ll be manipulated into making a decision that may not be in your best interest? Here are three practical suggestions.
Sleep on it.
Persuasive transactions typically occur quickly. Part of this is our own doing. We’ve finally decided to go look at a new laptop, automobile, or whatever, so we’re psychologically primed to buy the product. The persuader uses this psychological momentum to help coax you into signing on the dotted line right then and there. It’s only later, of course, that you sometimes have second thoughts. So when you think you’ve got the deal you want, tell the persuader that you always sleep on important decisions before making a final commitment.
The sleep-
Play devil’s advocate.
List all of the reasons why you should not buy the product or make a particular commitment (Albarracín & Vargas, 2010; Crano & Prislin, 2006). Arguing against the decision will help activate your critical thinking skills. It’s also helpful to discuss important decisions with a friend, who might be able to point out disadvantages that you have overlooked.
When in doubt, do nothing.
Learn to trust your gut feelings when something doesn’t feel quite right. If you feel that you’re being psychologically pressured or cornered, you probably are. As a general rule, if you feel any sense of hesitation, lean toward the conservative side and do nothing. If you take the time to think things over, you’ll probably be able to identify the source of your reluctance.