I-0
Page numbers in italics indicate figures and captions.
A ring, 250
A stars, 351
A0620-00 (black hole), 446
Abell 39, 133
Abell 222 and 223, 500
absolute magnitude, 347–349
absorption line spectrum, 114, 115
absorption lines, 111–112, 113, 115
acceleration, 58–59
accretion, 377
accretion disk, 397, 444, 445, 449
supermassive black holes, 523–524, 525
acetaldehyde, 560
acetic acid, 560
Achilles (asteroid), 128
achromatic lens, 85
active galactic nuclei (AGN), 518, 525
active galaxies, 514, 523, 525
active optics, 90
active Sun, 317–326
actuators, 90
Adams, John Couch, 63, 128, 265
adaptive optics, 90, 91
Adrastea (Jupiter moon), 246, 247
Advanced Composition Explorer, 420
aerogel, 290
age decay, 370
age-dating techniques, 117, 118
albedo, 146
Aldebaran, 13, 348, 350
Aldrin, Buzz, 177
Algol, 355, 396, 398
ALH84000 (meteorite), 558
ALH84001 (meteorite), 221
Allende meteorite, 303, 561
allowed orbits, 118–119, 120
Almagest (Ptolemy), 47
Alnitak, 371, 373
alpha particles, 390
Alpher, Ralph, 458, 532
Altair (star), 11
alt-azimuth coordinate system, see altazimuth system
altazimuth system, 13–14
altitude, and star coordinate systems, 12
Alvarez, Walter and Luis, 304
Amalthea (Jupiter moon), 246, 247
amino acids
carbonaceous chondrites, 302
comets, 290
ammonia, 235, 287
Amor asteroids, 285
ancient astronomy, 42, 45, 46
star classification, 345
time cycles, 27
year, 24
Andromeda Galaxy (M31), 81, 458, 459, 466, 483
black hole, 521
1885 supernova, 417
Local Group, 494
angle of incidence, 77, 78
angles, measuring with human hand, 15
angstrom (Å), 72
angular diameter, 15–16, 57
angular measurements, 15–16
angular momentum, 59, 60–61, 135
angular motion, 61
angular resolution, 80, 81
annular solar eclipse, 32
anorthosite, 176
Antares, 133
antimatter, 539
antineutrinos, 539
antiparticles, 538, 539, 540
Antlia Dwarf Galaxy, 494
aphelion, 54
Aphrodite Terra (Venus), 206–207
Apollo (asteroid), 281
Apollo asteroids, 285
Apollo missions, 129, 175, 176, 177, 178, 183
apparent binaries, see optical double stars
apparent brightness, 348
apparent magnitude scale, 338, 345–347
Aquarius (the Water Bearer), 22, 26
Aquarius Star Stream, 474
Aquila (the Eagle), 11
Arabia Terrae (Mars), 208, 211
arc angle, 15
arcminute (arcmin), 52
Arcturus (star), 10, 348
Arecibo Observatory (Puerto Rico), 3, 93, 129, 565, 567
Ares Vallis (Mars), 216, 222
Argyre Planitia (Mars), 217
Aries (the Ram), 22, 26
Aristarchus of Samos, 2, 47
Aristotle, 2, 42, 46
Armstrong, Neil, 175, 177
Arsia Mons (volcano), 193
asterisms, 9, 10
asteroid belt, 141, 281, 282, 283–284
asteroid belts, of exoplanets, 152
asteroid collisions, 283–284
asteroid impact on Jupiter, 238–239
asteroids, 8, 141, 142, 280–286
bombardment of Moon, 180–181
discovering, 281–282
orbits of, 281
astrobiology, 558
astrometric method, for detecting exoplanets, 149
astronomers, female, 352
astronomical distance, units of, 55
astronomical unit (AU), 54, 55
astronomy, nonoptical, 92–100
astronomy, observational, 70
astrophotographs, 87, 88
asymptotic giant branch (AGB) star, 407
atmosphere (atm), 160
atomic number, 117
atoms, 8, 116–117
Auriga (the Charioteer), 11
aurorae, 169
Jupiter, 237, 238, 239
Saturn, 247
autumn (fall), 21
autumnal equinox, 14, 20, 21
avalanches, on Mars, 220, 221
average density, of planets, 145
azimuth, 12, 14
B ring, 250
B stars, see OB associations
Baade, Walter, 339, 420, 459, 515
Babcock, Horace, 322
Balmer, Johann, 3, 119
Balmer lines, 119–120, 339, 351–352
Balmer series, 119
Baptistinas (asteroids), 304
Barnard 86 (dark nebula), 373
Barnard’s star, 122
barred spiral galaxies, 488, 491
barycenter, of Earth and Moon, 181–182, 183, 184
basalt, on Venus, 205
Bay of Fundy, tides, 185
belief systems, 44
Bell Burnell, Jocelyn, 339, 421
Bell Laboratories horn antenna, 533
belt asteroids, 281
belts and zones
on Jupiter, 233, 236
on Neptune, 264–265
on Saturn, 248, 249
on Uranus, 259
Bessel, Friedrich, 338, 344, 410
Beta (β) Lyrae, 397
Beta (β) Persei, see Algol
Beta (β) Pictoris, 147
Betelgeuse, 348, 350
Bethe, Hans, 339, 458
Biermann, Ludwig, 129, 291
Big Bang, 132, 532–533, 535
Big Dipper, 9, 10, 15
binary pulsars, 425
binary star systems, 134, 338, 357–360, 361, 363, 396, 397, 398
black holes, 444–445, 449
mass transfer, 396–397, 399
spectral line wavelengths, 361–362
bipolar planetary nebula, 408, 409
birth line, 378
BL Lacertae objects, 458, 518, 520, 521, 525
black holes, 8, 339, 435, 436, 459
I-1
in binary star systems, 444, 449
characteristics of, 441–442
effect on time, 444
evaporation of, 451–452
and general relativity, 440–441
infalling matter, 443–444, 449
intermediate-mass, 445, 448
matter in, 441
primordial, 445, 449, 452
sizes of, 441
stellar-remnant, 445, 446
and virtual particles, 451
see also supermassive black holes
black smokers, 564
blackbodies, 107–109
blackbody curves, 107–109, 111, 350
blackbody radiation, 108
blackbody spectra, 114, 120
blazars, 520
blue light, 110
blueberries (hematite), 218, 220
blueshift, 121
Bohr, Niels, 3, 351
Bok, Bart, 376
Bok globules, 376, 377
bolides, 297–298
Boltzmann, Ludwig, 108
Bondi, Herman, 533
BOOMERANG, 533, 534, 543
Boötes (the Herdsman), 10
Bouvard, Alexis, 128
Brahe, Tycho, 2, 49, 51–52, 54, 342, 405, 417
Braille (asteroid), 297
Braille, Louis, 297
Bristol Channel, tides, 185
Brooks, William R., 293
brown dwarfs, 378, 379
brown ovals, 233
buckminsterfullerene (buckyballs), 371, 560
Bunsen, Robert, 112, 113
Bunsen burner, 112
Burns Cliff (Mars), 219
butterfly diagram, 319, 320
Caesar, Julius, 24
calculus, 49
caldera
on Mercury, 197
Olympus Mons, 214
calendars, 24
Callisto (Jupiter moon), 239, 240, 245, 246
potential for life, 562
vital statistics, 241
calorimeters, 98
Caloris Basin (Mercury), 196, 197
Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope (Mauna Kea), 87
Cancer (the Crab), 22
Canis Major (the Larger Dog), 10
Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy, 474, 494
Canis Minor (the Smaller Dog), 10
Cannon, Annie Jump, 339, 352
Capricorn (the Goat), 22
capture theory (of Moon’s origin), 179
carbon, and organic molecules, 559–560
carbon dating, 118
carbon dioxide
on Earth, 159–160
and greenhouse effect, 161–163
carbon fusion, 414
carbon monoxide emission, 374, 375
carbonaceous chondrites, 302, 560, 561
Carrington, Richard, 128
Cassegrain, Laurent, 78
Cassegrain focus, 78
Cassegrain mirrors, 86
Cassini, Giovanni, 128, 234, 250
Cassini division, 250–251
Cassini spacecraft, 129
Galilean moons, 240
Jupiter, 236, 238
Saturn and its moons, 248, 249, 251, 252, 253, 254, 256, 257, 258, 259
Cassiopeia, 51
Cassiopeia A (Cas A), 415, 416, 417, 425, 514
Castalia (asteroid), 284
Castelli, Benedetto, 319
Cavendish, Henry, 2
CDs, 114
celestial equator, 12, 19, 24
celestial sphere, 11–14
Centaurus A (NGC 5128), 519
Centaurus constellation, 342, 377
Centaurus X-3, 426–427
center of mass, 61
of binary stars, 358, 359
central bulge, 470
central peaks (of craters), 172, 196
Cepheid variability, 339
Cepheid variable stars, 338, 339, 391–392, 458, 464, 465–466
and distance measuring, 465, 506
Milky Way, 467
period-luminosity relation, 464
pulsation of, 392
Cerenkov, Pavel A., 333
Cerenkov flashes, 418
Cerenkov radiation, 98–99, 333
Ceres (dwarf planet and asteroid), 128, 129, 141, 142, 276, 279, 281, 282
CERN particle accelerator, 536
cesium, 112
Chadwick, James, 339
Chandra X-ray Observatory, 3, 98, 405, 411, 417
Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan, 339, 411
Chandrasekhar limit, 411
Chandrayaan-1 lunar orbiter, 177
charge-coupled devices (CCDs), 87, 88, 114
Charon, 129, 277–279
Chelyabinsk, Russia, bolide, 297, 298
Chicxulub Crater, Mexico, 304, 305
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 77, 161
chondrites, 302
chondrules, 302, 303
Christy, James, 129, 278
chromatic aberration, 84–85
chromosphere, 314, 323
circles, 52
circular orbits, 62
circumpolar stars, 17–18
circumstellar disks, 137
circumstellar shell, 413
Clark, Alvan G., 83, 338
classical KBOs, 287
Clementine lunar-orbiting spacecraft, 129, 177, 178
close binary systems, 360, 398, 411
closed universe, 548
clouds, see giant molecular clouds; intergalactic clouds; interstellar clouds; molecular clouds
clusters (of galaxies), 8, 482, 492–495
and dark matter, 500, 501
distribution of, 493, 494
effect of gravity on, 64
and galaxy collisions and mergers, 495–500
COBE spacecraft, see Cosmic Background Explorer
Cocoon Galaxy (NGC 4490), 490
cocreation theory (of Moon’s origin), 179, 180
collimators, 99
collision-ejection theory (of Moon’s origin), 179, 180
colors, of light, 72
coma (of comet), 290, 292, 293
Coma cluster, 495
Comet 2006 SQ372, 293
Comet Brooks, 293
Comet Hale-Bopp, 275, 289, 291, 296
Comet Halley, 63, 128, 289, 295, 560
Comet Hartley 2, 289, 290
Comet Holmes, 290
Comet Hyakutake, 289
Comet Ikeya-Seki, 293
comet impacts, on Jupiter, 238–239
Comet LINEAR, 287, 295
Comet Mrkos, 292
comet nuclei, 142, 147, 238, 289, 290
Comet Schwassmann-Wachmann 3, 295
Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9, 238–239, 287, 295
Comet SOHO LASCO C3, 296
comet tails, 290–292
Comet Tempel 1, 294, 295
Comet Toit-Neujmin-Delporte, 295
Comet West, 8
Comet Wild 2, 290, 292, 560
comets, 8, 142, 286–297
breakup of, 295
and formation of life, 560
Kreutz comets, 296
Kuiper belt, 140
long-period, 293–295
and meteor showers, 299
orbits of, 63, 289, 291
short-period, 295
structure of, 292
sungrazing, 296
Commentariolus (Copernicus), 2
comparative planetology, 144–147
of inner planets, 224–226
of outer planets, 267–269
comparison spectrum, 114
complex molecules, and life, 559
compressional wave, 485, 486
Compton, Arthur Holly, 98
I-2
Compton Gamma-ray Observatory, 98
concave lenses, 82
conceptual framework, 46
Cone Nebula, 134, 383
configurations, 48–50
confinement, 539
conic sections, 62
conjunctions, 50
conservation of angular momentum, 59, 61, 135
conservation of linear momentum, 61
constellations, 9, 10–11
and celestial sphere, 11
cycles of, 16–17
see also zodiac constellations
constructive interference, 72
contact binaries, 396, 397
continental drift, 163–164
continuous spectrum (continuum), 114, 115
continuum, 516
convection, 167
on Europa, 243
and Sun, 330
convection current, 167
convective zone, 330
convergent boundaries, 164, 167
convex lenses, 82, 83
coordinate systems, for celestial sphere, 13–14
Copernicus, Nicolaus, 2, 45, 48–51
Cordelia (Uranus moon), 262
core bounce, 414
core collapse, of high-mass star, 414
core helium fusion, 406
core hydrogen fusion, main-sequence stars, 387–388
corona, solar, 315–316
coronal holes, 324
coronal mass ejections, 170, 325, 326
Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE), 94, 459, 470, 533, 534, 535, 543
cosmic background radiation, 535, 542
cosmic censorship, 444
cosmic light horizon, 539
cosmic microwave background, 458, 459, 533, 534–535, 543
and curvature of space, 549
cosmic neutrino background, 534
cosmic neutrinos, 533–534
cosmic ray shower, 419, 420
cosmic rays, 317, 419–420
cosmological constant, 530
and dark energy, 551
and superstring theories, 553
cosmological redshift, 531, 532
cosmology, 45, 530
coudé focus, 79
Crab Nebula, 133, 338, 421, 422, 424
Crab pulsar, 421, 422, 424
Crater Aristillus (Moon), 171
Crater Petrarch (Mercury), 196
craters, 141
on Callisto, 245, 246
on Earth, 164–165, 172
on Mercury, 195, 197
on Moon, 171–172, 174, 181, 195
see also impact craters
Curie, Marie, 116
Curiosity spacecraft and rover, 209, 218, 222, 223
Curtis, Heber D., 464, 522
CW Leonis (star), 295
Cygnus (the Swan), 11, 376
Cygnus A (Cyg A), 514, 520
Cygnus Loop, 375, 416
Cygnus X-1, 339
and black hole, 445, 446
Dactyl (asteroid satellite), 284, 141
Dalton, John, 2
Daphnis (Saturn moon), 252
dark ages, 544
dark energy, 548, 549–551, 552
quintessence, 552
dark matter, 462, 539, 544, 547, 549
halos, 500
Milky Way, 476, 477
and superstring theories, 553
dark nebulae, 372, 373, 376
dark side of the Moon, 26–27, 182
Darwin, Sir George, 183
Davis, Raymond, 332
Dawn spacecraft, 279
Ceres and Vesta, 281, 282
day-night cycle, of Earth, 16–18
daylight, duration of, 21–22
De nova stella (On the New Star), 52
De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Sphere), 2, 49, 51
declination (Dec.), 12, 13
decoupling, 541, 543
Deep Impact spacecraft, 293, 294
deferent, 46–47
deforestation, 163
degeneracy, 389
degenerate electrons, 389
degenerate matter, 411
degree (°), 15
Deimos, 128, 223, 224
Dells (Mars), 220
Delphinus (the Dolphin), 11
Delta Cephei stars, see Type II Cepheids
Delta (δ) Herculis, 357
Deneb, 11
dense cores, 134, 376
density, and mass, 146
destructive interference, 72
detached binary, 396, 397
deuterium, 333
Dialogues Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (Galileo), 49
Dicke, Robert, 533
differential rotation
Jupiter, 234
Sun, 319
diffraction grating, 113, 114
diffraction spectra, 114
dinosaur extinction, 304, 305
Dione (Saturn moon), 256
Dirac, Paul A. M., 542
direct motion 45
distance-magnitude relationship, 349
distance-measuring techniques, 503, 506–507
distances, astronomical, 7–9
diurnal motion, 16
divergent boundaries, 164, 167
Doppler, Christian, 3, 121
Doppler measurements, 122
Doppler shift, 121
double star systems, 122
expanding universe, 531
microwave sky, 535
of stellar spectra, 148
double-line spectroscopic binary, 361, 363
double-radio sources, 518, 519, 525
double pulsar, 425
double stars, 122, 357
Sirius, 410
Draco (the Dragon), 24
Drake, Frank, 459, 559, 565
Drake equation, 565–566
Draper, Henry, 3
Draper, J. W., 3
dry ice, on Mars, 222
dust devils, Mars, 217
dust tail (of comet), 292
DVDs, 114
dwarf elliptical galaxies, 489
dwarf galaxies, 495
dwarf planets, 129, 142, 276–279, 280
positions in outer solar system, 288
dynamo theory (of Earth’s magnetic field), 168
Dysnomia (moon), 279, 280
Eagle Nebula, 8, 381
early type galaxies, 488
Earth, 157, 158–170
albedo of, 146
angular momentum, 61
atmosphere of, 76, 77, 88–89, 158–163
average density of, 145
axis of rotation tilt, 14, 19, 24, 181
biological evolution on, 144
craters on, 172
crust of, 163
cycles of, 16–28
diameter of, 145
effects of gravity on, 64
formation of, 138, 139
impacts on, 300, 301, 304–305
interior of, 165–168
magnetic field of, 167, 168–169, 262
mass of, 145
path on celestial sphere, 14
precession rate, 24
revolution of, 16
rotation of, 16–18, 63
semimajor axis of, 56
shadow of, 28–29
synodic and sidereal periods of, 51, 56
temperatures of, 160, 166
tides on, 182–183, 184–185
ultraviolet radiation, 161
vital statistics, 159
water on, 158, 159
see also inner planets
Earth-crossing asteroids, 285
Earth-Mercury conjunctions, 50
Earth-Moon distance, 31–32, 186
Earth-Sun distance, 21, 51, 128
I-3
eclipse path, 30, 31
eclipses, 28–33
Pluto and Charon, 277
see also lunar eclipses; solar eclipses
eclipsing binaries, 359–360
ecliptic (of Earth), 19
ecliptic (of Sun), 14
Eddington, Arthur, 326, 339
87 Sylvia (asteroid), 284
Einstein, Albert, 42, 74, 338, 436, 530, 548
cosmological constant, 551
equations of general relativity, 339
on light, 111
theory of general relativity, 44, 56
theory of special relativity, 326, 338
Einstein cross, 526
Einstein ring, 526
ejecta blankets, 171–172
electric charge, 116
electromagnetic force, 116, 117
electromagnetic radiation, 70, 72, 73, 75–76
and blackbodies, 107–109
and Earth’s atmosphere, 76, 77
properties of, 111
from stars, 108
and temperature, 106–107
electromagnetic spectrum, 75–76
electromagnetism, 536, 537, 538, 539
electron degeneracy pressure, 389, 414
electron neutrinos, 332
electron spin, 468
electrons, 116, 117–118, 539, 540
in excited state, 120
orbits of, 118–119
and photons, 119
see also degenerate electrons
electroweak force, 536, 537
elementary particles, 538, 539
elements, chemical, spectral lines of, 112–114
Elliot, James, 129
ellipses, 53, 54
elliptical galaxies, 488–490, 491, 492
creation of, 546
and star formation, 545
elliptical orbits, 62, 63
elongations, 50
emission line spectra, 114, 115, 120
emission lines, 112, 113, 115
emission nebulae, 372
Enceladus, 258, 259
Encke, Johann Franz, 252
Encke division, 251–252
energy
and matter, 326, 436–437
and momentum, 60–61
energy flux, 109
epicycle, 46–47
Epimetheus (Saturn moon), 253
EPOXI spacecraft, 289
Epsilon Eridani (star), 152, 559
equations of stellar structure, 331
equatorial bulge, 24, 25
equinox,19
see also autumnal equinox; vernal equinox
era of recombination, 541–542
ergoregion, 442, 443
Eris (dwarf galaxy), 129, 142, 276, 279, 280
Eros (asteroid), 8, 129, 286, 287
Escher Rock, 220
Eta Aquarids meteor shower, 299
ethane, on Titan, 255, 256, 257
ether, 46
ethyl alcohol, 560
ethylene, on Saturn, 248
Eugenia (asteroid), 284
Europa (Jupiter moon), 239, 240, 242–244
ice and water on, 144, 243–244
potential for life, 562
underground ocean, 244
vital statistics, 241
volcanism, 244
Europa torus, 247
evening star, 50, 201
event horizon, 441, 442
evolutionary track, pre–main-sequence stars, 378–380
excited state, 119
exoplanets, 129, 147–153, 379
orbits of, 153
stars of, 150, 152–153
expanding universe, 531
Explorer 42, see Uhuru
extrasolar planets, see exoplanets
extraterrestrial civilizations, estimates for with Drake equation, 565–566
Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer (EUVE), 96
eye diseases, 161
eyepiece lens, 83
eyepieces, 82
Eyjafjallajokull volcano, 164, 204
F ring, 251, 252
false vacuum, 537–538
far side of the Moon, 26–27, 170, 174, 178, 181, 182
Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer (FUSE), 96
Fermi, Enrico, 332
Fermi Gamma Ray Space Telescope, 420
Fermi Large Area Telescope, 98
51 Pegasi, 129
filaments
at galactic center, 472
in solar corona, 36, 323
fireballs, 297
first quarter Moon, 26, 27
Fisher, Richard, 459, 506
fission theory (of Moon’s origin), 179
Fizeau, Armand, 3
flat universe, 548–549
Fleming, Williamina, 352
flocculent spiral galaxies, 484
focal length of lenses, 78, 83
focal plane, 78, 83
focal point, 78, 83
focus (foci) of an ellipse, 53
Fomalhaut (star), 148
Fomalhaut b, 153
force, 59
force law (Newton’s second law), 58–59, 116
Ford, Kent, 459
formaldehyde, 560
forsterite, 290
Foucault, Jean-Bernard, 3
Fraunhofer, Joseph von, 111, 128
Frederick II, King, 49
free-floating planets, 153
frequency, 74–75
friction, 58
Friedman, Herbert, 3
Friedmann, Alexander, 458, 548
From the Earth to the Moon (Verne), 171
frost line, see snow line
full Moon, 26, 27, 28
fullerenes, 304–305
Gaia satellite, 345
galactic cannibalism, 474, 498–500
galactic center, 470, 471, 472, 473
galactic collisions, 492, 495–496, 498, 546–547
galactic cosmic rays, 317
galactic disk, 468, 470, 473–474
Galactic Evolution Explorer (GALEX), 96
galactic mergers, 495, 496–498, 499
galactic nucleus, 466, 470, 471–473
galaxies, 8, 466
effects of gravity on, 64
formation of, 491–492, 542–546
irregular, 490–491, 492
peculiar, 518
recessional motion of, 502
spectra of, 502
starburst, 496, 497
types of, 482–492
see also clusters (of galaxies); superclusters (of galaxies)
Galilean moons (or satellites), 57, 239–240
vital statistics, 241
Galilei, Galileo, 2, 49, 56–58
and Jupiter’s moons, 239
and Sun, 319
Galileo probe, 235, 238, 241, 242
Galileo Regio (Ganymede), 244
Galileo spacecraft, 129, 141
asteroids, 284–285
Callisto, 245, 246
Europa, 242, 243, 244
Galle, Johann, 63, 128, 265
Galle crater (Mars), 213
gamma-ray bursts, 449–451
gamma-ray emissions, 473
gamma ray photons, 329
gamma ray sources, 97, 98–99
gamma-ray telescopes, 98
gamma rays, 75, 111
and creating matter from energy, 540
and photons, 539, 540
from supernovae, 420
in Sun’s core, 329, 330
Gamow, George, 339, 458, 532
Ganymede (Jupiter moon), 239, 240, 244–245
liquid water on, 144
potential for life, 562
size of, 144
vital statistics, 241
gas (or ion or plasma) tail (of comet), 292
I-4
gas giants, 146
Jupiter, 234
Gaspra (asteroid), 141, 284–285
Gemini (the Twins), 11, 22
Geminids meteor shower, 299
Genesis spacecraft, 291–292, 317
geocentric (Earth-centered) cosmology, 2, 45, 46–47, 48, 51
geodesics, 439
giant elliptical galaxies, 489, 492
mergers and cannibalism, 498–499
giant molecular clouds, 372, 374, 376, 382, 383
giant planets, 146
formation of, 137–138
masses of, 144–145
orbits of, 139–140
see also Jupiter; Neptune; Saturn; Uranus
giant stars, 354, 356, 387–388, 390
globular clusters, 392–393
helium fusion in, 389
Giotto spacecraft, 560
comets, 289
glaucoma, 77
Gliese 229A, 378, 379
Gliese 229B, 378 , 379
Gliese 581 (star), 151
Gliese 876 (star), 151
Gliese 876d (planet), 151
glitch (in pulsars), 425
global warming, 163
globular clusters, 153, 392–393, 467
evolution summary, 394
formation of, 496
glycine, in space, 560
Gold, Thomas, 533
goldilocks zone, 158
Goldstone Solar System Radar, 284
Gondwana, 164
Google Sky, 13
gossamer rings, 247
Gran Telescopio Canarias, 91
grand-design spiral galaxies, 484, 485–487
Grand Unified Theories (GUTs), 536–537
granulation, of photosphere, 313, 314, 318
gravitation (gravity), 24, 41, 42, 46, 536, 537
and black holes, 436
effects of on Earth, 64
grazing incidence, 98
Newton’s law of universal, 43–44, 61–63
universal constant of, 62
gravitational force, 60–61, 62, 117, 438
gravitational lensing, 500, 501, 502, 547
of quasars, 526
gravitational microlensing, 151
gravitational potential energy, 60
gravitational radiation, 441
gravitational redshift, 439
gravitational wave detectors, 441, 442
gravitational waves, 441, 442
gravity, see gravitation
Great Attractor, 535
Great Dark Spot (Neptune), 265
Great Dying, 304
Great Observatories, 90, 95, 98
Great Red Spot, 128, 232, 233–234
greenhouse effect, 159, 161–162
on Venus, 204, 205
Greenwich, England, see prime meridian
Gregorian calendar, 24
Gregory XIII, Pope, 24
ground state, 119
Gum Nebula, 416, 424
Guth, Alan, 459
H II regions, 381–382
habitable zones, 562, 563
Hadley’s rille, 173
Hale, George Ellery, 129, 319, 321–322
half-life, 118
Hall, Asaph, 128
Halley, Edmond, 2, 63, 128, 338
Halley’s Comet, see Comet Halley
halo, 473, 477
halo field stars, 473
Haumea (dwarf planet), 142, 276, 279
Hawking, Stephen, 339, 449, 451
Hawking process, 452
Hawking radiation, 452
Hayabusa spacecraft, 286
HD 148937, 413
HD 149026 (star), 149
HD 171978 (binary star), 362
HD 209458b (planet), 149
HD 82943 (star), planets orbiting, 150
HDE 226868 (supergiant star), 446
head-tail sources, 519, 520
Heat Shield Rock, 220
heliocentric (Sun-centered) cosmology, 2, 47–51, 52, 57, 58, 321
heliosphere, 316–317
helium, 112
abundance of, 132
from hydrogen fusion, 326, 327, 328
interstellar medium, 371
on Saturn, 248
and stellar mass loss, 134
helium, liquid, on Jupiter, 235, 236
helium atoms, creation of, 540
helium flash, 389, 406
helium fusion, 388, 389, 406, 414
helium rain, 248–249
helium shell flash, 407
helium shell fusion, 407
Helix Nebula, 409
Hellis Planitia, 211
Helmholtz, Hermann von, 238
hematite, on Mars, 218, 220
Henry Draper Catalogue, 149, 362
Henry Draper Extended Catalogue, 348
Hercules cluster of galaxies, 8, 492, 495
Hercules X-1, 426–427
Herschel, Caroline, 357, 463
Herschel, John, 357, 463
Herschel, William, 2, 63, 75, 94, 128, 215, 265, 357, 458, 463, 466, 467
hertz, 74–75
Hertz, Heinrich, 3, 74
Hertzsprung, Ejnar, 338, 353, 354
Hertzsprung-Russell (H-R) diagrams, 353–355
diagram structure, 394
globular clusters, 393
instability strip, 391, 391
luminosity classes, 355, 356
star cluster, 383
Hewish, Anthony, 339
Hey, J. S., 3
HH 30 (protostar), 380
H’iaka (moon), 279
Higgs, Peter, 43
Higgs boson, 43
High-Energy Transient Explorer 2, 450, 451
high-mass stars, 413–416
Himalayas, 164, 165
Hinode satellite, 314, 325
Hipparchus, 24–26, 338, 344
Hipparcos satellite, 344–345, 394
Hirayama, Kiyotsugu, 284
Homestake gold mine (South Dakota), 332
homogeneity, of universe, 535
Hooke, Robert, 234
horizon, and visible stars, 9
horizon problem, see isotropy problem
horizontal branch, 406
horizontal branch stars, 393
Horsehead Nebula, 373, 374
hot spots, Jupiter, 235
hot-spot volcanism, and shield volcanoes, 214
Hourglass Nebula, 408, 409
Hoyle, Sir Fred, 533
HR 8799 (star), 151, 152
H-R diagrams, see Hertzsprung-Russell (H-R) diagrams
Huang, Su-Shu, 397
Hubble, Edward, 464, 466
expanding universe, 531
galaxy classification, 482, 488–490
galaxy spectra, 502
Hubble constant, 459, 503–504, 531, 532
Hubble Deep Field images, 547
Hubble flow, 502, 539
Hubble law, 503, 504, 505, 531
Hubble Space Telescope, 3, 89, 90, 91, 95, 339, 346
asteroids, 282
Cepheids, 465
exoplanets, 149
gamma-ray burst, 451
Neptune, 264, 265
novae, 411
observation of early universe, 505
Pluto, 276, 278
Saturn’s rings, 254
SN 1987 A, 418, 419
Uranus, 262, 263
Hubble tuning fork diagram, 491
Hulse, Russell, 441
Hulst, Hendrik van de, 458
Humason, Milton, 502
Huygens, Christiaan, 70, 128, 209, 211, 255
Huygens probe, 256, 257
hybrid gamma-ray burst, 449
Hydra (Pluto moon), 278
hydrocarbons, on Titan, 255
hydrogen
abundance of, 132
I-5
colors of, 120
discovery of, 2
energy level, 118, 119
interstellar medium, 371
on Saturn, 248, 249
and stellar mass loss, 134
see also Balmer lines
hydrogen, liquid, on Jupiter, 235, 236
hydrogen, liquid metallic, 236, 250, 254
hydrogen absorption lines, 351
hydrogen atom, 56
hydrogen burning, see hydrogen fusion
hydrogen envelope, 290, 291
hydrogen fusion, 133, 326, 327, 328, 339, 387–388, 411, 414
hydrogen gas, spectrum of, 115
hydrogen isotopes, 117
hydrogen photons, absorption and emission, 119
hydrogen shell fusion, 387–388
hydrostatic equilibrium, 329
hydroxyl radical, 177
hyperbolas, 62
Hyperion (Saturn moon), 255, 256
hypernova, 450
hyperthermophiles, 564
hypervelocity stars, 475
hypothesis, 43
Iapetus (Saturn moon), 256
IBEX satellite, 317
IC 2163, 498
IC 4182, 465
IC 434 (emission nebula), 373
Icarus (asteroid), 281
ice
on Callisto, 246
on Europa, 242, 243
on Jupiter, 238
on Mars, 211, 215, 222
on Mercury, 200
on Moon, 177
Saturn’s rings, 252, 253
on Triton, 266
on Uranus, 259
ice giants, 146
see also Neptune; Uranus
ice line, see snow line
ices, and comets, 287, 289–290, 297
Ida (asteroid), 141, 284–285
IMB (Irvine-Michigan-Brookhaven) neutrino detector, 418
impact breccias, 176
impact craters
from meteors, 298
on Moon, 171–172, 181
inertia, and Newton’s first law, 58
inferior conjunction, 50
inferior planets, Mercury and Venus, 48
inflation, 538, 542
inflationary epoch, 537, 538, 542
Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS), 92, 95, 471
infrared radiation, 75, 76, 94, 104, 111
Infrared Space Observatory (ISO), 95
Infrared Telescope Facility (IRTF), 95
infrared telescopes, 94–96
inner planets
atmospheres, 225–226
average densities of, 145
comparative planetology, 224–226
formation of, 138–139
interiors of, 226
masses of, 144
orbits of, 144
rotation and magnetic fields, 226
size and mass, 225
sizes of, 144
surface features, 226
temperatures of, 226
water on, 226
see also Earth; Mars; Mercury; Venus
instability strip, 390, 391
intensity curves, of stars, 109
interference patterns, of water waves, 72
interferometry, 91, 93
intergalactic clouds, and dark matter, 500
intergalactic gas, 8, 10, 495
and dark matter, 500
intermediate-mass black holes, 445, 448
International Astronomical Union, 142, 348
International Space Station, 6, 62
International System (SI) of units, 7
International Ultraviolet Explorer (IUE), 96
interplanetary debris, 143
Interstellar Boundary Explorer, 317
interstellar cloud collisions, 376
interstellar clouds, 134, 372
emission spectra from, 120
organic compounds in, 560
interstellar gas and dust, 8, 96, 337, 370–374, 458
and galactic collisions, 496
in Milky Way, 466–467
spiral galaxies, 486
interstellar medium, 370–374
interstellar planets, 153
interstellar reddening, 372–374
intracluster gas, 524
inverse-square law, 347–348
Io (Jupiter moon), 239, 240–242
atmosphere of, 242
and Europa, 242–243
orbit of, 242
vital statistics, 241
volcanoes and lava on, 240–242
Io torus, 242, 247
ionic bonding, 559
ionization, 117
ions, 117
iridium, in meteorites, 301, 304
iron meteorites, 301–302, 303
iron oxides (rust), 160
irregular cluster (of galaxies), 495
irregular galaxies, 490–491, 492
Ishtar Terra (Venus), 206
island universes, 463, 464
isotopes, 117
isotropy, 532
isotropy problem, 538
Itokawa (asteroid), 284, 286
James Webb Space Telescope, 96
Jansky, Karl, 3, 458
Janus (Saturn moon), 231, 253
JAXA space agency, 286
Jeans, Sir James, 134, 338
Jeans instability, 134
gas and dust, 374, 375
jets of gas, from black hole accretion disks, 524–525
John Paul II, Pope, 57
joule, 74
joule-seconds, 74
Jovian planets, see Jupiter; Neptune; Saturn; Uranus
Julian calendar, 24
Juno (asteroid), 280, 281
Juno spacecraft, 238
Jupiter, 8, 233–239
albedo, 146
and asteroid belt, 282, 283
atmosphere of, 233, 235, 268
aurorae, 237, 238, 239
average density of, 145, 234
belts and zones of, 233, 236
chemical composition of, 234–236
clouds of, 233–235
comet and asteroid impacts, 238–239
composition of, 146
convection on, 236
core of, 238
diameter of, 145
differential rotation of, 236
energy emitted, 238
formation of, 137–138, 139
hot spot, 235
ice on, 238
interior of, 236–238
lightning on, 237
liquid mantle of, 236
magnetic field of, 236–238, 262, 268
magnetosphere, 237, 238
magnetotail, 237, 238
mass of, 144, 145, 234
moons and rings, 57, 239–247, 268
protoplanet of, 238
rings and tori of, 129, 246–247
rotation of, 234
semimajor axis of, 56
size of, 144
stable Lagrange points, 285
storms on, 233–234
synodic and sidereal periods of, 51, 56
temperatures of, 235
Trojan asteroids, 285
vital statistics, 232
water vapor of, 235
white and brown ovals, 233, 235
winds of, 233, 235
see also Callisto; Europa; Ganymede; Io
Jupiter-Sun distance, 51, 55
Kamiokande neutrino detector (Japan), 332
Kamiokande II detector, 418
Kant, Immanuel, 458, 463
Kappa Arietis, 363
Karin (asteroid remnant cluster), 284
Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array, 93
KBO 1993 SC, 288
KBO 1998 WW31, 288
I-6
Keck I and Keck II telescopes, 3, 80, 90, 91, 95, 256, 346, 505
Keeler, James, 252
Keenan, P. C., 355
Kellman, Edith, 355
Kelvin, Lord, 238
Kelvin-Helmholtz mechanism, 238
kelvins, 108
Kennedy, John F., 175
Kepler, Johannes, 2, 44, 49, 51, 52–53, 417
Kepler 9 (star), 151
Kepler 37 (star), 151
Kepler 37b (exoplanet), 151
Kepler orbiting observatory, 152
Kepler’s first law, 54
Kepler’s laws of planetary motion, 2, 53–56, 58
Newton’s derivation of, 58, 61–62, 63
Kepler’s second law (law of equal areas), 54
Kepler’s third law, 54–56, 357
Kerr, Roy, 339, 442
Kerr black holes, 442–443, 523
kilolight years (kly), 55
kiloparsecs (kpc), 55
kinetic energy, 60, 61
King crater (Moon), 173
Kirchhoff, Gustav, 112, 113, 128
Kirchhoff’s laws, 114–116
Kirkwood, Daniel, 283
Kirkwood gaps, 283
Kirshner, Robert, 459
Kitts Peak National Observatory, 5
Kormendy, John, 522
Kreutz, Heinrich, 295
Kreutz comets, 296
Kuiper, Gerard, 129, 140
Kuiper belt, 129, 140
comets, 287, 289
Kuiper belt objects (KBOs), 140, 142, 279, 287–288
L1014 (dark nebula), 376
Lacerta (the Lizard), 530
Lagrange, Joseph, 285
Lakshmi Planum (Venus), 206
Land of the Midnight Sun, 22
Large Binocular Telescope (Mount Graham, AZ), 86
Large Hadron Collider, 43
large impact theory, see collision-ejection theory
Large Magellanic Cloud, 369, 417, 418, 458, 490, 494
Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave Observatory (LIGO), 442
Lassell, William, 128
Late Heavy Bombardment, 141–142, 181
late type galaxies, 488
Laurasia, 164
lava tubes (Moon), 173–174
law of action and reaction (Newton’s third law), 59, 62
law of equal areas (Kepler’s second law), 54
law of falling bodies, 49
law of inertia (Newton’s first law), 58, 61
leading-arm spiral galaxy, 488
leap years, 24
Leavitt, Henrietta, 338, 458, 465
Leibniz, Gottfried, 49
Lemaître, Georges, 458, 532, 548
length contraction, 437
lenses, 77, 82–85, 86
lenticulae, on Europa, 244
lenticular galaxies, 488
Leo (the Lion), 10, 13, 22
Leo I galaxy, 489
Leo Major, meteors, 299
Leonids meteor shower, 299
Leverrier, Urbain-Jean-Joseph, 63, 128, 265
Levy, David, 238, 287
LGM1 (Little Green Men 1), 421
Libra, 22
Library of Alexandria, 47
librations, 182
Lick Observatory, 83–84, 252
life, see astrobiology
life-forms, development and evolution of, 274
light
colors of, 72
intensity of, 75
nature of, 70–77
refraction, 72
wavelengths of, 73
wave-particle duality, 74
see also blue light; violet light; visible light; white light
light, speed of, 73
and special relativity, 56, 436, 437
and superstring theories, 553
light curves, 360, 411, 412
light-gathering power (of telescopes), 80, 81
light pollution, 6, 88–89
light waves, 71–72, 77
lighthouse model, 424
lightning, 73
on Jupiter, 237
on Venus, 204
light-year (ly), 55
limb (of solar disk), 313
limb darkening, 128, 313
Lin, C. C., 485
Lincoln Near Earth Asteroid program, 287
Lindblad, Bertil, 458, 475, 485
line of nodes, 28
linear momentum, 60–61
liquid metallic hydrogen
Jupiter, 236
Saturn, 250, 254
liquid water, and living organisms, 559, 562
lithium, 132, 150
lithium atoms, 540
Little Ice Age, 323
LMC X-3, 446
Local Arm (Orion Spur), 470
Local Group, 494
Local Supercluster (Virgo Supercluster), 492
long-period comets, 293–295
Lowell, Percival, 209
low-mass stars, 407–412
luminosity, 109, 349
luminosity classes, 355–356
Luna missions, 129
lunar colony, 179
Lunar Crater Observing and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS), 177
lunar craters, 141
lunar eclipses, 28
in 2014–2017, 29
number of occurrences, 28
types of, 28–30, 32
lunar highlands, 172, 174, 176
lunar landings, 175–177
lunar month, see synodic month
Lunar Orbiter 1, 129
lunar phases, 26–27
Lunar Prospector satellite, 177, 178, 179
lunar ranging beams, 183–186
Lunar Reconnaissance Observer, 173, 174, 177
lunar rocks, 142, 175–176, 317
Lyman-alpha forest, 516
Lyman series, 119
Lynden-Bell, Donald, 459, 521
Lyra (the Lyre), 11, 22
Lyrids meteor shower, 299
M10 (globular cluster), 393
M15 (globular cluster), 409
M31, 466
M32 (elliptical galaxy), 521–522
M43, 131
M55 (globular cluster), 393, 394
M81, 496, 497
M82, 448, 496, 497
M83, 468, 469
M84, 489
M86, 489
M87 (giant elliptical galaxy), 520, 522
M100, 464
M104, 522
M105, 490
M-theory, 553
M-type stars, 351, 352
Maat Mons (Venus), 206
Magellan, Ferdinand, 458
Magellan spacecraft, 129, 206, 207
MAGIC array, 98
magma, in Earth’s mantle, 167
magnetar, 424
magnetic dynamo model, 322
magnetic field reversals, 322, 323
magnetopause (Earth), 169
magnetosphere (Earth), 169
magnetotail (Jupiter), 237, 238
magnification, of telescopes, 80–82
magnitude scales, 345–349
Mah (Uranus moon), 264
main sequence, 354
main-sequence lifetimes, 386
main-sequence stars, 354, 356, 384–386
core hydrogen fusion, 387–388
evolution of, 389
mass-luminosity relation, 360–361
supermassive, 380
Makemake (dwarf planet), 142, 276, 279
mantle (of Earth), 166, 167
Marconi, Guglielmo, 566
Mare Australe, 174
mare basalt, 176
I-7
Mare Imbrium (Sea of Showers), 172, 174, 300
Mare Ingenii, 174
Mare Moscoviense, 174
Mare Nectaris (Sea of Nectar), 172
Mare Nubium (Sea of Clouds), 172
Mare Orientale, 174
Mare Serenitatis (Sea of Serenity), 172, 175
Mare Tranquillitatis (Sea of Tranquility), 172, 173, 175, 177
maria (sing., mare), 141, 142, 172–173, 174, 176, 181
Mariner 2, 291
Mariner 4, 129
Mariner 9, 209
Mariner 10, 129, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198
Mars, 138, 208–226
albedo, 146
ancient oceans and lakes, 219
appearance of, 203
atmosphere of, 215–218
avalanches, 220, 221
average density of, 145
belief in life on, 208–209
canals on, 128, 209
craters on, 211, 212, 217
crust and mantle of, 214–215
diameter of, 145
dust of, 216, 217
formation of, 138
gullies on, 220
ice on, 211, 215, 216, 222
interior of, 213–215
magnetic fields of, 214
mass of, 145
meteorites from, 300
methane on, 223
northern waste, 209
paths of, 45
potential for life, 562
regolith of, 222, 223
riverbeds and river channels, 218, 219
sand dunes, 221
search for microscopic life on, 222–223
seasons on, 215–216
semimajor axis of, 56
sky color, 216–217
sunlight scattering, 158
synodic and sidereal periods of, 51, 56
temperatures of, 217
topography of, 209–212
and Trojan asteroids, 285
vital statistics, 208
volcanoes, 210, 211, 212, 214
water on, 144, 215, 217, 218–222
winds on, 217
see also Deimos; inner planets; Phobos
Mars Global Surveyor, 210, 212, 214, 218, 219
Mars Pathfinder, 210, 216, 222
Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, 193, 214, 215, 220–221, 222
Mars rovers Spirit and Opportunity, 3, 129, 210, 216, 217, 218, 219, 222
Mars-Sun distance, 51
Marsquake, 220
mascons (mass concentrations), 177
mass, 56, 144
and acceleration, 58–59
mass exchange, between binary stars, 399
mass-luminosity relation, 339, 360–361
mass transfer, 397, 398
massive compact halo objects (MACHOs), 476
Mather, John C., 533
Mathilde (asteroid), 286, 287, 302
matter
degenerate, 411
and energy, 326, 436–437
phases of, 236
matter-dominated universe, 541
Mauna Kea, Hawaii, 88, 95, 281
Maunder, E. Walter, 323
Maunder minimum, 323
Maxwell Montes (Venus), 206
Maxwell, James Clark, 3, 72, 73, 128
McCandless, Bruce, II, 41
McMath-Pierce Solar Telescope, 97
measurements, using angles, 15–16
Medicean stars, see Galilean moons
Medici family, 239
megahertz, 75
megalight years (Mly), 55
megaparsecs (Mpc), 55
melanin, 114
Mendeleyev, Dimitri, 3
Menzel 3, 409
Mercury, 48, 195–201
albedo, 146, 195
appearance of, 203
atmosphere of, 201
average density of, 145, 198
crust of, 197
diameter of, 145
elongations of, 50, 53, 230
formation of, 138
ice on, 200
impact basins and craters, 196, 197–198
interior of, 198–199
iron content, 198–199
magnetic field, 198–199
magnetosphere, 199
mantle and core of, 197, 198, 199
mass of, 145
orbit of, 144, 199–200
orbital eccentricity, 53, 54
outgassing on, 201
plains of, 196
rotation and revolution of, 199–200
rotation rate, 129
semimajor axis of, 56
sidereal day and year on, 200
size of, 144
solar day of, 200
and Sun, 199
sunlight scattering, 158
surface of, 195–198
synodic and sidereal periods of, 51, 56
temperatures of, 195, 201
and tidal bulges, 199
vital statistics, 194, 241
volcanic activity, 195, 196, 197
see also inner planets
Mercury-Earth conjunctions, 50
Mercury-Sun distance, 51
mesosphere, 161
Messenger (Mercury Surface, Space, Environment, Geochemistry, and Ranging) spacecraft, 129, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198–199, 200
Messier, Charles, 338
metals
astronomical definition, 134, 353
interstellar medium, 371
Meteor (or Barringer) Crater, Arizona, 298
meteor showers, 128, 299
meteorite falls and finds, 303
meteorites, 297, 300–303
and age-dating solar system, 300
classifications of, 301
iron content, 301
from Mars, 222, 223
from Moon and Mars on Earth, 300
see also SNC meteorites
meteoroids, 8, 297
meteors, 297, 298, 299
methane ice, Neptune, 264–265, 266
methane
on Mars, 223
on Titan, 255, 256, 257
on Uranus, 259
Metis (Jupiter moon), 246, 247
metric system, see International System (SI) of units
microcraters, 172
microlensing, 151, 476, 477, 500
microns (micrometers), 76
microwave sky, 534, 535
microwave telescopes, 94
microwaves, 76, 111
Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 163
Milky Way Galaxy, 11, 48, 458, 459, 461, 462
arms of, 459
center of, 466, 467
defining, 463–466
differential rotation of, 474–476
effects of gravity on, 64
galaxy type, 488
giant molecular clouds, 374
infrared image of, 96
Local Group, 494
mapping, 468, 469
number of planets in, 153
rotation curve of, 476
schematic diagrams of, 462
stellar-remnant black holes, 445
star orbits, 474
supernovae, 416–417
Miller, Stanley, 459, 561
Miller-Urey experiment, 561
millisecond pulsars, 425
Mimas (Saturn moon), 231, 250, 256
Minkowski, Rudolph, 459, 515
Minor Planet Center, 282
minor planets, see asteroids
Mir space station, 31
Miranda (Uranus moon), 264
mirrors, of reflecting telescopes, 77–82, 86
missing mass, of Milky Way, 476
Mitchell, Maria, 3
I-8
Mizar A (star), 12, 338, 358
Mizar B, 338, 358
model, defined, 43
Moe (Martian rock), 216
molecular clouds, 372, 374, 376, 382, 383
molecules, 117
moment of inertia, 61
momentum, 59
and energy, 60–61
see also angular momentum; linear momentum
Monoceros constellation, 375, 376
month, 27–28
see also sidereal month; synodic month
Moon, 141, 157, 170–186
albedo of, 176
angular diameter of, 15–16
angular momentum, 61
asteroid bombardments on, 180–181
concept of month, 27–28
creation of, 144
crust of, 174, 177, 178
cycles of, 16
diameter of, 15–16, 170
during day, 27
Earth and Moon’s origin, 179, 180, 181
Earth and Moon’s rotation, 181–182
far and dark sides of, 26–27, 170, 174, 178, 181, 182
formation of, 139, 179, 180, 181
gravitational attraction on Earth, 24, 25, 184, 185
ice on, 177
impact cratering, 141–142
impact rates, 180–181
interior of, 177–179, 181
Late Heavy Bombardment, 141–142
low-magnification image, 82
mantle, 178
meteor impacts on, 299, 300
meteorites from, 300
movement away from Earth, 183–186
origin theories, 179
polar regions, 178
and precession, 24, 25
solar eclipses and, 30, 31
sunlight scattering, 158
surface of, 171–174, 175–176, 178, 179, 181
synchronous rotation, 181–182, 183
and tides on Earth, 182–183
umbra and penumbra of, 29, 31
vital statistics, 170, 241
waxing and waning of, 27
see also entries under lunar
Moon rocks, 175–176
dating of, 142
neon in, 317
moonlets, in Saturn’s rings, 254
moonquakes, 176–177
moons (natural satellites), 142
in solar system, 144
potential for life, 562
Morgan, W. W., 355
Morgan, William, 459
morning star, 50, 201
motion
and wavelength, 121
see also direct motion; diurnal motion; Newton’s laws of motion; precession; prograde motion; retrograde motion; revolution; rotation
Mount Everest, 165
Mount Palomar Observatory, 3, 88–89
multiple-planet systems, 151–152
muon neutrinos, 332
Namaka (moon), 279
nanometer (nm), 72
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Great Observatories, 90, 95, 98
Nasmyth, James, 79
Nasmyth focus, 79
National Radio Astronomy Observatory, 93
natural satellites, see moons
neap tides, 183
NEAR (Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous) Shoemaker spacecraft, 129, 286, 287
Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer (NIC-MOS), 95
nebulae, 372, 464
negative curvature of space, 548, 549
neon, in Sun, 317
neon fusion, 414
neon lights, 115
Neptune, 128, 264–267
albedo, 146
atmosphere of, 265, 268
average density of, 145
belts and zones of, 264–265
clouds of, 264, 265
composition of, 146
diameter of, 145
discovery of, 63, 265
formation of, 138, 139
interior of, 262, 265, 268
magnetic field of, 262, 265, 268
mass of, 145
moons of, 266
rings of, 129, 266, 268
seasons on, 265
semimajor axis of, 56
size of, 144
synodic and sidereal periods of, 51, 56
tides on, 267
and Trojan asteroids, 285
vital statistics, 260
winds on, 265
Neptune-Sun distance, 51
net external force, see Newton’s first law
neutral atoms, 117
neutrino detectors, 332, 333
neutrinos, 327, 331–332, 539
Big Bang, 533
cosmic, 533–534
and supernovae, 418
neutron core, 421
neutron degeneracy pressure, 420, 436
neutron stars, 339, 420–425
atmospheres of, 425
axis of rotation of, 423
in binary systems, 426–427
collapsing, 440
collisions, 426
interior, 424–425
jets of gas from, 449
magnetic fields, 421–423
neutrons, 116, 117–118, 339, 420
and Big Bang, 537
and protons, 117
New Astronomy (Kepler), 54
New Horizons spacecraft, 247, 279
new Moon, 26, 28
New Technology Telescope (Chile), 90
Newton, Isaac, 2, 42, 43–44, 49, 58, 87, 530
on continental drift, 163
on light, 70, 71
on sunlight, 72
telescopes, 77
Newton’s first law (law of inertia), 58, 61
Newton’s form of Kepler’s third law, 357
Newton’s law of universal gravitation, 43–44, 60–63
Newton’s laws of motion, 58–60, 438–439
Newton’s second law (the force law), 58–59, 116
Newton’s third law (law of action and reaction), 59, 62
Newtonian reflector, 78
newtons, 59, 60
NGC 604, 120
NGC 664, supernovae in, 507
NGC 891, 483
NGC 1265, 519–520
NGC 1313, black holes, 448
NGC 1512, 497
NGC 1566 (Seyfert galaxy), 518
NGC 2023 (reflection nebula), 373
NGC 2024 (emission nebula), 373
NGC 2207, 498
NGC 2264, 384
NGC 2363, 120
NGC 3077, 496
NGC 3115, 522
NGC 3377, 490
NGC 4151 (Seyfert galaxy), 518
NGC 4261 (double-radio source), 523, 524
NGC 4406, 490
NGC 4485, 490, 491
NGC 4622, 488
NGC 4676 (the Mice), 498
NGC 5907, 483
NGC 6240, 499
NGC 6624, 427
NGC 6826, 409
NGC 6872, 488
NGC 7052, 447
Nice model of solar system formation, 135, 139, 143, 238
nickel, radioactive isotope of, 412
night sky, 5–6, 13
1994 XM1 (asteroid), 285
nitrogen isotopes, 292
Nix (Pluto moon), 278
NN Serpens, 359
nomad planets, 153
nonoptical astronomy, 92–100
nonvisible radiation, 92
noon, astronomical, 22–23
I-9
Norma Arm, 470
North America Nebula, 375
north celestial pole, 12, 19
and precession, 24, 25
north magnetic pole (Earth), 168
North Star, see Polaris
northern lights (aurora borealis), 169–170
northern waste or northern devastation (Mars), 209
nova (novae), 410–411
Nova Cygni 1975, 411
Nova Herculis 1934, 411
nuclear bulge, see central bulge
nuclear density, 414
nuclear fission, 165, 166, 540
nuclear fusion, 166
nuclei, see comet nuclei
nucleosynthesis, 413
nucleus (of atom), 116
O-type stars, 352
OB associations, 382, 383, 468
OBAFGKM sequence, 339, 352
objective lenses, 82–83, 84
observational astronomy, 70
observational data, of early universe, 505–506
Observatoire de la Côte d’Azur, 183
Occam’s razor, 44
occultation, 262
oceans
on Callisto, 245
on Earth, 159–160
on Europa, 244
Odin microwave telescope, 94
Oemler, August, 459
Olbers, Heinrich, 280
Oliver, Bernard, 562–564
Olympus Mons (Mars), 211, 214
1RXS 1609 (star), 149
Oort, Jan, 129, 288
Oort cloud, 140
comets, 287, 288, 289
Oort cloud objects, 142
open clusters (of stars), 134, 376, 382–382, 384, 394
open universe, 549
Ophelia (Uranus moon), 262
Ophiuchus (the Serpent Holder), 22
Oppenheimer, J. Robert, 339
Opportunity rover, 210, 216, 217, 218, 219, 221
opposition, 50
optical double stars, 357
Opticks (Newton), 2, 49
orbital eccentricities, 53, 54
orbital inclinations, of planets, 143
orbits, 52, 62, 63
allowed, 118–119, 120
Kepler’s first law, 54
organic molecules, 559–560, 562
extraterrestrial, 560–561
Orion (the Hunter), 9, 10, 11, 92, 371, 375
Orion Molecular Cloud, 131, 132, 147
Orion Nebula (Great Nebula of Orion), 131, 134, 137, 147, 371, 373, 375, 379, 382
Orion’s belt, 10, 13
Orion’s sword, 147
Orionids meteor shower, 299
Ostriker, Jerry, 459
Outer Arm, 470
outer planets, 232
atmospheres and rotation, 267
average densities, 145
interiors, 267
magnetic fields of, 268
moons of, 269
orbits of, 144
rings of, 268
sizes and masses, 267
synodic periods of, 50
see also Jupiter; Neptune; Saturn; Uranus
outgassing, on Mercury, 201
overcontact binary, 396, 397, 398
oxygen
colors of, 120
Earth’s atmosphere, 160
oxygen fusion, 414
oxygen isotopes, 117
ozone, 161
ozone holes, 161
ozone layer, 77, 160–161, 170
P4 and P5 (Pluto moons), 278
pair production, 540
Palitzsch, Johann, 128
Pallas (asteroid), 141, 280, 281, 282
pallasite, 302
Pallene (Saturn moon), 253
Palomar Observatory, 3, 88–89
Pan (Saturn moon), 252
Pandora (Saturn moon), 252
Pangaea, 163, 164, 167
parabolas, 62
parabolic telescope mirrors, 86
parallax, 51, 52, 342
and determining distance, 343
Paranal Observatory, 69, 91
parsec (pc), 55, 344
partial eclipse of the Sun, 31, 32
partial lunar eclipse, 29, 30
particle accelerators, 536
Paschen series, 119
Pauli, Wolfgang, 332, 339, 389
Pauli exclusion principle, 389
Payne-Gaposchkin, Cecilia, 339, 351
peculiar galaxies, 518
Peebles, P. J. E., 459, 533
Pelican Nebula, 375
penumbra
of Earth’s shadow, 29, 30
of sunspot, 319
penumbral eclipse, 29, 30
Penzias, Arno, 459, 533
peridot, 290
perihelion, 54
period-luminosity relation, 338, 392, 464, 465
periodic table of elements, 113
periods (of planets), 50
and mass, 56
Perseids meteor shower, 299
Perseus Arm, 470
Perseus cluster (of galaxies), 524
Petit-Prince (asteroid satellite), 284
phase transition, 236
Phi Persei, 397
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Newton), 49
Phobos (Mars moon), 128, 223–224
Phoebe (Saturn moon), 254, 255, 256
Phoebe ring, 254
Phoenix Mars Lander, 211, 215
photodisintegration, 414
photoelectric effect, 74
photography, and astronomy, 87, 88
photoionization, 120–121
photometry, 350
photomultipliers, 333
photon energies, 74, 75, 532
and intensities, 111
photon pressure, see radiation pressure
photons, 70, 74–75, 97, 329
in early universe, 539, 540–541, 542
and electrons, 119
as sunlight, 330
transform into matter and antimatter, 539–540
wavelengths and frequencies, 74
photosphere, 312, 313, 314, 315, 316, 318
and magnetic fields, 320
photosynthesis, 160, 163
physical diameter of objects, measuring, 15–16
physical forces, 535–536, 539
unification of, 536, 537
see also electromagnetism; gravitation; strong nuclear force; weak nuclear force
Piazzi, Giuseppe, 128, 279
Pickering, Edward C., 338, 352
Pierre Auger Observatory, 420
Piggot, Edward, 338
Pilan Patera (volcano), 241
Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11, 566–567
pions, 420
Pisces (the Fish), 22, 26
Pistol Star, 380
pixels, 87
PKS 2000-330 (quasar), 516
plages, 323
Planck, Max, 3, 74, 111, 536–537
Planck era, 536, 537
Planck microwave telescope, 94
Planck time, 536–537, 538
Planck’s constant, 74
Planck’s law, 111
planet, 45
defined, 142
planetary differentiation, 166
planetary masses, 144–145
planetary motion, 46–47
planetary nebulae, 133, 408, 409, 410
planetary orbits, 143
Kepler’s first law of, 54
planetesimals, 137
planetology, see comparative planetology
planets, 8
angular momentum, 59
configurations, 48–50
formation of, 143
free-floating, 153
I-10
mass of, 56
number of moons, 146, 147
orbital characteristics of, 144
orbital eccentricities, 53, 54
orbits of, 144
sidereal and synodic periods of, 50, 51, 54
size groups, 144
and Sun, 145
plasmas, 320, 541, 542
of Jupiter, 247
plate boundaries, 164, 167
plate tectonics, 164, 165, 167
Pleiades star cluster, 297, 372, 373
plutinos, 140, 288
Pluto, 129, 276–279
apparent magnitude, 346
demotion as planet, 142
discovery of, 276, 277
formation of, 140
moons of, 278
orbit of, 276–277
plutoids, 140
Pogson, Sir Norman, 338, 345
pointer stars, 10
polar regions, on Mars, 215, 216
Polaris (North Star), 5, 10, 18, 360
Polaris spacecraft, 169
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), 372, 560
polymers, on Titan, 255
poor cluster (of galaxies), 494
Population I stars, 396
formation of, 408
Population II stars, 396
Population III stars, 544
positively curved space, 548
positrons, 327, 473, 539, 540
post–main-sequence evolution, 390
post–main-sequence stars, 406
potential energy, 60
pre–main-sequence stars, 377–380
precession, 24, 25
precession of the equinoxes, 24–26
prescientific conceptual framework, 46
primary cosmic rays, 419
primary mirrors, 78, 80, 90, 91
prime focus, 79
prime meridian, 14, 23
primordial black holes, 445, 449, 452
primordial fireball, 541
primordial gamma-ray photons, 542
primordial nucleosynthesis, 540
prisms, and spectrum, 71
prograde motion, 45
prograde orbits, Jupiter’s moons, 246
Project Ozma, 559
Prometheus (Saturn moon), 231, 252
Prometheus (volcano), 241
prominences, solar, 323, 324
proper motion, 122, 338
protogalaxies, and star formation, 545–546
proton-proton chain, 327, 387
protons, 8, 116, 117–118
and Big Bang, 537
and neutrons, 117
protoplanetary disks, 135, 137, 147–148
protoplanets, Jupiter, 238
protostar, 376, 377
protosun, 135, 136, 143
Proxima Centauri, 55, 342, 344i, 349
Ptolemaic system, 47
Ptolemy, Claudius, 2, 46–47
pulsars, 339, 421–424, 425
Pythagoras, 42
Quadrantids meteor shower, 299
quantum fluctuations, 542, 544
quantum mechanics, 118
and general relativity, 552
quantum theory, early universe, 542
Quaoar (KBO), 288
quarks, 536, 537, 539
quasars, 514–518, 521, 525, 544
gravitational lensing of, 526
light from, 526
quasi-stellar objects (QSOs), 516
quasi-stellar radio sources, see quasars
quintessence, 552
Quintuplet Cluster, 380
R136 (superstar cluster), 369
R136a1 (star), 380
radial velocity, 122
radial-velocity curve, 361, 362
radial velocity method for detecting exoplanets, 149
radiation-dominated universe, 541
radiation laws, 109
radiation pressure, in comets, 292
radiative transport, 329
radiative zone, 329
radio galaxies, 518–519, 521
radio signals, broadcast into space, 566, 567
radio sources, Cyg A, 515
radio stations, 75
radio telescopes, 92–94, 514
radio waves, 75, 76, 92–94, 104, 111
and signs of life, 562, 564, 565
radioactive decay, 117, 118, 165, 166
radioactive elements, 116
radium, 116
Ranger 7, 129
Rapa Nui people, 276
RCW 49 (nebula), 377
Reber, Grote, 458, 514
recessional velocity, Hubble law, 503
red dwarfs, 386–387, 406
red giants, 354, 388, 408
red light, 72
Red Spot Jr. (Oval BA), 234, 235
redshift, 121
cosmological, 531, 532
of galaxies, 502
gravitational, 439
reflecting telescopes (reflectors), 77–82, 85, 86, 91
reflection, 77, 78
reflection nebulae, 372, 373
refracting telescopes (refractors), 77, 83–85
refraction, 70, 72, 82
regolith, 175, 176
of Mars, 222, 223
of Venus, 205
regular cluster (of galaxies), 495
Regulus, 10, 356
relativity, theories of, and black holes, 436, 443
relativity, theory of general, 44, 56, 151, 338, 438–439, 443, 458
and expanding universe, 530, 531, 548
light from quasars, 526
and quantum mechanics, 552–553
relativity, theory of special, 436–438
and Sun’s energy, 326
Remus (asteroid satellite), 284
resonance, 139
Saturn, 250
retrograde motion, 45, 51
heliocentric explanation of, 48
Jupiter’s moons, 246
of planets, 46–47
revolution, 16
Rhea, 258
Rho Ophiuchi cloud, 379
Riccioli, Giovanni, 338
rich cluster (of galaxies), 494
Rigel, 355
right ascension (R.A.), 12, 13
rilles, 173
rings (of planets), 142
of Jupiter and its moons, 246–247
Roche, Edouard, 128, 396
Roche limit, Saturn, 253
Roche lobes, 396, 397
rocket nozzle model, 525
Roentgen, Wilhelm, 3, 75
Roman Catholic Church, Galileo and, 49, 57
Rømer, Ole, 73
Romulus (asteroid satellite), 284
Rosette Nebula, 87, 120, 376
Rosse, Lord (William Parsons), 3, 458, 463–464
rotating radio transients (RRATs), 424
rotation, 16
and Doppler shift, 122
and solar system formation, 135
see also differential rotation
rotation poles (of Earth), 168
RR Lyrae stars, 391, 464
and distance measuring, 506
rubidium, 112
Rubin, Vera, 459
Rupp, Emil, 44
Russell, Henry Norris, 338, 353, 354
Rutherford, Ernest, 116
Sa (spiral type a) galaxies, 482, 483, 487, 488
Sagan, Carl, 558
Sagitta (the Arrow), 11
Sagittarius A (Sgr A), 472, 514
Sagittarius A*, 472, 473
Sagittarius Arm, 470
Sagittarius Dwarf Galaxy, 474
Saha, Meghnad, 339, 351
Sakharov, Andrei, 544
San Andreas fault, 164, 165
sand dunes, on Mars, 221
Sandage, Allan, 515
I-11
Santa Maria Rupes (Mercury), 198
Sapas Mons (Venus), 206
Saturn, 129, 231, 247–259
albedo, 146
atmosphere of, 235, 247–250, 268
aurorae, 247
average density of, 145
belts and zones on 248, 249
clouds on, 249
composition of, 146
diameter of, 145
formation of, 138, 139
interior of, 236, 250, 268
magnetic field of, 254–255, 268
mass of, 145
moons of, 252, 253, 255, 256
rings of, 128, 231, 250–255, 268
semimajor axis of, 56
size of, 144
storms on, 248, 249
synodic and sidereal periods of, 51, 56
temperatures of, 235
visible and radio views of, 94
vital statistics, 248
winds on, 248
Saturn-Sun distance, 51
Sb galaxies, 482, 483–484, 487
SBa galaxy, 488
SBb galaxy, 488
SBc galaxy, 488
Sc galaxies, 482, 484, 487, 488
scarps
on Mercury, 197, 198
on Moon, 177, 178
scattered KBOs, 287
scattering, 110
Schecter, Paul, 459
Scheila (asteroid), 283
Schiaparelli, Giovanni, 128, 209
Schmidt, Bernard, 86
Schmidt, Maarten, 516
Schmidt-Cassegrain telescopes, 86
Schmidt corrector plate, 86
Schmitt, Harrison, 175
Schwabe, Samuel, 318
Schwarzschild, Karl, 128, 338, 441
Schwarzschild black holes, 442, 473, 523
Schwarzschild radius, 441, 442
science, defined, 43–44
scientific method, 42, 43–44
and Newton’s ideas, 63
scientific notation, 7
scientific research, 42–43
scientific theories (or laws), 43–44, 58
scintillators, 98
Scorpius, 22
Scorpius-Centaurus OB association, 417
Scott, David, 173
Scutum-Centaurus Arm, 470
seafloor spreading, 163–164
searches for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI), 559, 564–565
seasons
on Earth, 19–22
on Mars, 215–216
on Neptune, 265
on Sun, 21
Secchi, Angelo, 338
secondary cosmic rays, 420
secondary mirror, 78, 79–80
Sedna (KBO), 288–289
seeing disk, 88
segmented-mirror telescopes, 91
Segue 1 (dwarf galaxy), 500
seismic waves, 166
seismographs, 166
SELENE lunar orbiter, 174
self-propagating star formation, 484–485
semidetached binaries, 396, 397, 398
semimajor axis, 53
SETI, see searches for extraterrestrial intelligence
SETI@home, 563–564
Seyfert, Carl, 458, 518
Seyfert galaxies, 458, 518, 521
Shapley, Harlow, 458, 464, 467
Shapley concentration, 535
Shapley-Curtis debate, 462, 464, 466
Shectman, Stephen, 459
shepherd satellites (moons), Saturn, 252
shield volcanoes, Mars, 214
Shoemaker, Gene and Carolyn, 238, 287
shooting stars, 297–298
short-period comets, 295
Shu, Frank, 485
sidereal day, 23
sidereal month, 28
sidereal motion, 28
sidereal periods (of planets), 16, 50, 51
silicon fusion, 413, 414
silicon-oxygen bonds, 559, 560
silicon-silicon bonds, 559
silicone, 560
single-line spectroscopic binary, 361
singularity, 440, 442
Sirius, 10, 338, 348
apparent magnitude, 346
Sirius A, 410
Sirius B, 338, 410
Sitter, Willem de, 548
61 Cygni (star), 344
sizes
of objects in universe, 7–9
of universe, 7–9
skin cancer, 77, 161
sky maps, see celestial sphere
Slipher, Vesto, 458, 502
Sloan Digital Sky Survey, 492, 526
Small Magellanic Cloud, 458, 465, 490, 494
small solar system bodies (SSSBs), 142, 276, 280
positions in outer solar system, 288
Smoot, George F., 533
SN 1997ff, 550
SNC meteorites, 221–222, 300
snow line, 136, 137
snowballs, Saturn’s rings, 252
Snyder, Hartland, 339
SOFIA (Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy), 95–96, 473
soft gamma ray repeaters (SGRs), 424
Sojourner rover, 216, 220
Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO), 3, 96, 295, 296
solar corona, 30, 31, 315–316
hot spots, 323
and solar maximum, 323
solar cycle, 322–323
solar day, 22, 23
Solar Dynamic Observatory (SDO), 96, 311
solar eclipses, 28
in 2014–2017, 32
eclipse path of total and annular, 33
number of occurrences, 28
types of, 30–33
solar flares, 128, 170, 324–325, 326
solar granules, 313, 314, 330
solar layers, temperatures, 315
solar luminosity, 327
solar maximum, 323
solar minimum, 323
solar model, 329–331
solar nebula, 135, 136
solar neutrinos, 332
solar oscillations, 129
solar prominences, 323, 324
solar spectrum, 111–112, 116, 128
solar system, 127
formation of, 117, 132–140, 143
moons in, 144
planetary orbits, 143
solar telescopes, 96–97
solar wind, 129, 169, 316–317
and comets, 291, 292
and Mercury, 198, 199
Sombrero Galaxy (M104), 457, 483
black hole, 523
sound waves, and formation of superclusters, 542–544
south celestial pole, 12, 24
south magnetic pole (Earth), 168
southern highlands (Mars), 209
southern lights (aurora australis), 170
Southern Pinwheel Galaxy, 8
Soviet Union, Venus probes, 202
space debris, 8
space dust, 371–372
space telescopes, 90
space tourism, 6
space weather, 326
space weather satellites, 170
spacetime, 532, 537
and behavior of light, 439–440
curvature of, 438, 439–440, 548
expanding, 531
in superstring theories, 552, 553
spectral analysis, 112, 128
spectral-line motion, 362
spectral lines, 128
brightness levels of, 114–116
of chemical elements, 112–114
spectral sequence, 353
spectral types, 352–353
spectrographs, 79, 113, 114
spectroscope, 112
spectroscopic parallax, 356, 506
spectroscopy, 112, 113
spectrum (spectra), 70, 71
speculum metal, 79
spherical aberration, 84–85, 86
Spica, 10
I-12
spicules, 314, 315
spin (of particles), 467–468
spin flips, 468
spiral arms
of Milky Way, 468, 469, 470
spiral galaxies, 482–487
spiral density waves, 485, 486
spiral galaxies, 482–487, 491, 492
creation of, 546
mergers, 499
rotation curves of, 500
and star formation, 545, 546
spiral tracers, 468
Spirit rover, 210, 217, 218, 222
Spitzer Space Telescope, 95, 254, 459
and quasars, 525
spring (season), 20
spring tides, 183
stable Lagrange points, 285
standard candles, 503, 504, 507
star designation, 148
star formation
early universe, 544–546
H II regions, 381–382
process summary, 385
star names, 348
starburst galaxies, 496, 497
Starburst Galaxy (M82), 481
Stardust mission, 290, 560
Starry Night™, 6, 13
stars, 8
absorption line spectra, 115
ancient classification of, 345
apparent magnitudes of, 346
asymptotic giant branch, 407
circumpolar, 17–18
classification by spectra, 352–353
colors of, 341
colors of and temperatures, 349–350
distances from Earth, 12
distances to, 342, 344
double star systems, 122, 357, 410
electromagnetic radiation, 108
formation of, 134
high-mass, 413–416
horizontal branch, 393
hypervelocity, 475
intensity curves of, 109
and interstellar medium, 371
location description, 11–12
low-mass, 407–412
mass loss of, 133
motion at Earth’s poles, 18
optical double, 357
patterns of, 9–14
plotting ages of, 383, 384
Population I, II, III, 396, 408, 544
rising and setting of, 17–18
sunlike, 143
temperatures of, 349–353
types of, 353–356
see also asterisms; binary star systems; giant stars; main-sequence stars; neutron stars; open clusters; post–main-sequence stars; pre–main-sequence stars; and entries under stellar
steady-state theory, 533
Stefan, Josef, 108
Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 109
Stefan-Boltzmann law, 108–109
stellar birth rates, 546
stellar cores, 133
stellar evolution, 342
pre–main-sequence stars, 378–380
rate of, 339
red supergiant to white dwarf, 408
summary of, 428
stellar masses, 339, 356–361
stellar nurseries, 376
stellar parallax, 338, 342, 343, 344–345
stellar radii, 355
stellar-remnant black holes, 445, 446
stellar remnants, 420
stellar spectra, 351, 352–353
Balmer lines in, 120
and size, 355
stellar spectroscopy, 350–351
stellar structure, equations of, 331
stellar winds, 133
Stephan, Edouard, 492
Stephan’s quintet, 492
STEREO (Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory), 96
Stickney, Angeline, 224
stony meteorites, 301, 302–303
stony-iron meteorites, 301, 302, 303
storms
Great Dark Spot, 265
Great Red Spot, 233–234
Red Spot Jr., 234, 235
on Saturn, 248, 249
white and brown ovals, 233
stratosphere, 161
strong nuclear force, 117, 536, 537
subatomic particles, 7–8
sub-brown dwarfs, 379
Sudbury Neutrino Observatory, 332, 333
Sufi, Abd al-Rahman al-, 458
sulfur compounds, on Venus, 203
summer, 20, 21
summer solstice, 19, 20, 21
summer triangle, 11
Sun, 8, 311, 312
acceleration of, 62
atmosphere of, 313–317
as a blackbody, 108
brightness of, 331
color of, 110
common elements in, 330
convective zone, 330
core of and energy, 329–330
core temperature, 326, 327
cycles of, 16
daily motion and clock times, 22–23
daily path of, 20
development of, 143
differential rotation, 319
ecliptic, 14
emissions from, 317
energy deposited by, 20
energy from thermonuclear reactions, 326
global magnetic field, 325
gravitational attraction on Earth’s equatorial bulge, 24, 25
on H-R diagram, 355
intensity curve of, 109
interior of, 326–333
magnetic fields of, 311, 316, 317, 319–326
mass of, 56, 331
path across sky, 21–22
and planets, 145
as a red giant, 388
rising and setting of, 19–21
and seasons, 21
solar layers temperatures, 315
surface temperature of, 109
thermonuclear fusion, 327
and tides on Earth, 183, 184, 185
vibrations of, 321
visible spectrum of, 105
vital statistics, 312
year and, 22
see also entries under solar
sungrazing comets, 296
sunlight, 110, 330
sunlight scattering, 158
sunspot cycle, 128, 317–318, 320, 322
sunspot groups, 319, 321
sunspot maximum, 318
sunspot minimum, 318–319
sunspots, 129, 317–319, 320–321
and prominences, 323
superclusters (of galaxies), 462, 482, 492–493, 542
evolution of, 551
motion of, 502–505
and superstring theories, 553
superclusters (of galaxy clusters), 8
superconductors, 424–425
supercontinents, 164, 167
superfluids, 424–425
supergiants, 354, 356, 408, 413, 414
supergranules, 314, 315
superior conjunction, 50
superior planets, 48, 50
supermassive black holes, 445–448, 499, 513, 520, 521–522, 523, 544
and galactic activity, 523
Milky Way, 461
supermassive stars, mass loss by, 413
Supernova 1987A (SN 1987A), 339, 417–419
supernova explosions, 303
of high-mass star, 414
supernova of 1572, 51–52, 342, 405
supernova remnants, 374–375, 415, 416–417
Crab Nebula, 421
at galactic nucleus, 472
near-Earth, 433
supernovae, 133
and distance measuring, 465, 507
Type Ia, 411–412, 416, 459, 465, 550
Type II, 415–416, 420–421
superstar cluster, 394, 440, 536, 552–553
Surveyor 1, 129
Swift Gamma-Ray Burst Mission, 98, 451
symmetry breaking, 540
I-13
synchrotron radiation, 472, 519
synodic month, 28
synodic motion, 28
synodic periods (of planets), 50, 51
Syrtis Major (Mars), 211
T Tauri stars, 378–380
Tarantula Nebula (30 Doradus), 369, 418, 490
Tau Boötes, 322
Tau Ceti, 559
tau neutrinos, 332
Taurids meteor shower, 299
Taurus (the Bull), 11, 22
Taurus-Littow Valley (Moon), 175
Taylor, Joseph, 441
tectonic plate motion, 164, 167
tectonic plates, 164, 165, 167
telescope technology, 6
telescopes, 1, 2, 70
and Galileo, 56–57
light-gathering power of, 80, 81
Lord Rosse, 463
refracting and reflecting, 77
and stellar parallax, 344
terminator (of Moon), 27
terminator (of Mercury), 197
terraces (of craters), 172
terrestrial planets, 139
see also Earth; inner planets; Mars; Mercury; Venus
Tethys (Saturn moon), 256
Thales of Miletus, 2
Tharsis Bulge (Mars), 210
Thebe (Jupiter moon), 246, 247
theory, 43
Theory of Everything, 536, 552
thermal pulses, 410
thermal runaway, 407
thermonuclear fusion, 133, 326, 327
Third Cambridge Catalogue, 515
third quarter Moon, 26
Thomson, Joseph, 3
3C 48, 515, 516
3C 75, 520
3C 273, 515–516, 517
3C 279, 517
3C numbers, 515
3-degree background radiation, 533
3-to-2 spin-orbit coupling, Mercury, 200
Thuban, 24
tidal forces, Earth and Moon, 184, 185
tiger stripes, 258, 259
time, slowing down of, 438
time cycles, astronomical, 27
time dilation, 437
time zones, 23
Tissint meteorite, 300
Titan (Saturn moon), 231, 255–257
possible life on, 257
rain on, 255
sand dunes on, 256
size of, 144
water on, 256–257
titanium oxide, 351
Toby Jug (reflection nebula), 388
Tombaugh, Clyde, 129, 276
tori, of Jupiter moons, 247
torque, 61
total lunar eclipse, 29–30
total solar eclipse, 30–33
Toutatis (asteroid), 283–284, 286
trailing-arm spiral galaxies, 488
transform-fault boundaries, 164
transit method of detecting exoplanets, 149, 150
transitions, of electrons, 118–119
trans-Neptunian objects (TNOs), 140, 142, 279
transverse velocity, 122
Trapezium, 120, 131, 371, 382
Trip to the Moon, A (movie), 171
triple alpha process, 390
triple star system, 360
Triton (Neptune moon), 266
capture of, 267
ice on, 266
Trojan asteroids, 128, 281, 283, 285
troposphere, 161
true vacuum, 538
Trumpler, Robert, 458, 466
tube worms, 564
Tully, Brent, 459, 506
Tully-Fisher relation, 506–507
Tunguska event (1908), 298
turnoff point, 394
Tvashtar Patera (volcano), 241
21-cm radio radiation, 468
twinkling (of stars), 88, 89, 90
Two Degree Field (2dF) Survey, 492
2M1207 and 2M1207b, 148, 379
2004 FU162 (asteroid), 285
2010 JL88 (asteroid), 286
2012 DA14 (asteroid), 285
Tychonic system, 49
Type I Cepheid variables, 391, 465, 466
Type Ia supernova, 411–412, 416, 459, 465, 550
Type II Cepheid variables, 391, 392
Type II supernovae, 415–416
neutron stars, 420–421
Uhuru, 426
ultra compact dwarf elliptical galaxies, 489
ultrahigh-energy cosmic rays, 420
ultraviolet astronomy, 96
ultraviolet (UV) radiation, 75, 76, 111
on Earth, 161
intermediate-wavelength (UVB), 77
and life, 562
long-wavelength (UVA), 77
short-wavelength (UVC), 77
ultraviolet telescopes, 94, 96–97
Ulysses spacecraft, 325
umbra
of Earth’s shadow, 28–30
of sunspot, 319
unidentified flying objects (UFOs), 558
universal constant of gravitation, 62
universe
acceleration of, 550–551, 552
definition, 530
early history of, 537, 542
electromagnetic spectrum, 99
estimating age of, 531, 532
evolution of, 536–538, 551
evolution theories, 459
expansion of, 504, 538, 539
expansion and acceleration of, 530, 531, 532
false vacuum, 537–538
formation of, 132, 143
future of, 547–552
geometries of, 548–549
homogeneity and isotropy, 535
matter-dominated, 541
observable, 539
observed mass of, 132
percentages of major components of, 552
radiation-dominated, 541
scales of, 7–9
transition to true vacuum, 538
Upsilon Andromeda system, 151, 152
Uraniborg, 49
uranium, 116, 117
uranium isotopes, 118
Uranus, 128, 259–264
albedo, 146
atmosphere and clouds, 259, 260, 268
average density of, 145
belts and zones, 259
composition of, 146
diameter of, 145
discovery of, 63
and discovery of Neptune, 265
formation of, 138, 139
interior of, 261, 263, 268
magnetic field of, 261, 262, 268
mass of, 144–145
moons of, 262, 263
retrograde rotation, 261
rings of, 129, 262–264, 268
seasons on, 261
semimajor axis of, 56
size of, 144
synodic and sidereal periods of, 51, 56
vital statistics, 260
Uranus-Sun distance, 51
Urey, Harold, 459, 561
Ursa Major (the Large Bear), 10, 11
Ursa Major Dwarf Galaxy, 474
Ursids meteor shower, 299
V838 Monocerotis (star), 337
vacuum energy, 551
Valhalla Basin (Callisto), 245, 246
Valles Marineris (Mars), 209–211, 213, 219
Van Allen, James, 169
Van Allen belts, 169, 326
variable stars, 390–398
Vastitas Borealis (Mars), 209, 211, 215, 222
Vega (star), 11, 24, 120
and apparent magnitude scale, 346
asteroid belt, 152
Vela pulsar, 424
Vela satellite, 449
velocity, 58
Venera 4, 129
Venera 7, 202
Venera 13, 205
I-14
Venus, 48, 201–208
albedo, 146
apparent size changes (phases), 57
appearance of, 203
atmosphere of, 202–203, 204, 205, 207
atmospheric pressure, 204
average density of, 145
brightness of, 201
clouds of, 202–203
craters on, 207
diameter of, 145
elongations of, 50, 53
formation of, 138
greatest elongations 2013–2017, 230
interior of, 207–208
lava flows on, 207
magnetic field of, 208
mass of, 145
as morning star and evening star, 201
orbital eccentricity, 54
regolith, 205
retrograde rotation, 129, 208
semimajor axis of, 56
sunlight scattering, 158
surface of, 204, 205–207
surface temperature of, 202
synodic and sidereal periods of, 51, 56
temperatures of, 204
tilt of rotation axis, 208
vital statistics, 202
volcanoes, 203–207
see also inner planets
Venus Express satellite, 204, 205
Venus-Sun distance, 51
VERITAS array, 98
vernal equinox, 14, 20, 21, 26
Very Large Array (VLA) radio observatory, 3, 93, 94, 472
Cygnus A, 514
Very Large Telescope (Chile), 69, 91
Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA), 93–94
very-long-baseline interferometry (VLBI), 93
Vesta (asteroid), 141, 280, 281, 282, 297, 300
Viking 1 and 2, 129
Viking 1, 210, 211, 212, 218, 222–223
Viking 2, 210, 211, 222–223
Viking lander, 558
Villard, Paul, 3
violet light, 110
Virgo (the Virgin), 10, 22
Virgo cluster, 489, 492, 494, 495
virtual particles, 451–452, 542
visible light, 70, 72, 75, 76, 104
visible radiation, 111
visual binaries, 357
voids, 493, 544, 547
volcanism
on Europa, 244
hot-spot, 214
volcanoes
on Io, 240–242
on Mars, 214
on Venus, 203–207
Volkoff, George, 339
Voyager 1, 129, 317
Callisto, 245
Galilean moons, 240, 241
Jupiter, 232
Voyager 2, 317
Europa, 242
Galilean moons, 240, 241
Neptune, 265, 266
Saturn, 252, 254, 255, 257
Uranus, 259, 261, 262, 263, 264
Voyager spacecraft, human memorabilia, 567
W Ursae Majoris, 397
waning crescent Moon, 26
waning gibbous Moon, 26
War of the Worlds (Wells), 209
WASP-12 and WASP-12b, 150
water
on Callisto, 245
on Earth, 144, 159
in Enceladus, 258
on Europa, 243, 244
on Ganymede, 244–245
on Mars, 215, 217, 218–222
on Moon, 177–179
in Saturn’s rings, 254
on Titan, 256–257
on Uranus, 261
water hole, 564
water ice
on Charon, 279
comets, 289–290
on Eris, 279
on Moon, 179
on Rhea, 258
on Triton, 267
water vapor, of Jupiter, 235
water waves, 71, 72
wavelengths
of colors, 72
and motion, 121
wave-particle duality, 74
waxing crescent Moon, 26
waxing gibbous Moon, 26
weak nuclear force, 117, 332, 536, 537, 538, 539
Wegener, Albert, 163
weight, 56
Weizsacker, Carl von, 339
Wells, H. G., 209
Westerlund 1 (globular cluster), 394
Whirlpool Galaxy (M51), 463, 464
white dwarfs, 339, 354, 356, 408, 410, 411
white-hot objects, 106
white light, 49, 70
white ovals, 233, 235
Widmanstätten, Count Alois von, 301
Widmanstätten patterns, 302
Wien, Wilhelm, 108
Wien’s law (Wien’s displacement law), 108, 109
Wilkinson, David, 533
Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP), 94, 533, 534, 543
William of Occam, 44
Wilson, Robert, 459, 533
winding dilemma, 484, 485
windows, in Earth’s atmosphere and electromagnetic radiation, 76
winter, 21
winter solstice, 19, 20, 21
winter triangle, 10, 11
Witten, Ed, 553
Wolf, Max, 128, 281–282
Wolf-Rayet stars, 450
work, 60
wormholes, 444
Xanadu (Titan), 257
XMM-Newton X-ray telescope, 98
X-ray bursters, 427
X-ray flares, 472, 473
X-ray photons, 97
X-ray sources, 98
pulsating, 426–427
X-ray telescopes, 97–98
X-rays, 75, 76, 111
stellar-remnant black holes, 445
year, 22, 24
of Earth, 16–17
Yerkes Observatory, 3, 83
Young, Thomas, 2, 71, 72
Zeeman, Pieter, 319
Zeeman effect, 319, 320
zenith, altazimuth system, 14
zero-age main sequence (ZAMS), 384
Zeta Leporis (star), 152s, 285
Zeta Orionis, see Alnitak
zodiac constellations, 22
zonal flow, 233
Zwicky, Fritz, 339, 420