to writing an argument of fact
• Finding a Topic
167
You’re entering an argument of fact when you:
make a claim about fact or existence that’s controversial or surprising: Climate change is threatening species in all regions by extending the range of non-native plants and animals.
correct an error of fact: The overall abortion rate is not increasing in the United States, though rates are increasing in some states.
challenge societal myths: Many Mexicans fought alongside Anglos in battles that won Texas its independence from Mexico.
wish to discover the state of knowledge about a subject or examine a range of perspectives and points of view: The rationales of parents who homeschool their children reveal some surprising differences.
• Researching Your Topic
Use both a library and the Web to locate the information you need. A research librarian is often a valuable resource, as are experts or eyewitnesses. Begin research by consulting the following types of sources:
scholarly books on your subject
newspapers, magazines, reviews, and journals (online and print)
online databases
government documents and reports
Web sites, blogs, social networking sites, and listservs or newsgroups
experts in the field, some of whom might be right on your campus
Do field research if appropriate — a survey, a poll, or systematic observation. Or invite people with a stake in the subject to present their interpretations of the facts. Evaluate all sources carefully, making sure that each is authoritative and credible.
• Formulating a Hypothesis
168
Don’t rush into a thesis. Instead, begin with a hypothesis that expresses your beliefs at the beginning of the project but that may change as you learn more. It’s OK to start with a question to which you don’t have an answer or with a broad, general interest in a subject:
Question: Have higher admissions standards at BSU reduced the numbers of entering first-year students from small, rural high schools?
Hypothesis: Higher admissions standards at BSU are reducing the number of students admitted from rural high schools, which tend to be smaller and less well-funded than those in suburban and urban areas.
Question: Have music sites like Pandora and Spotify reduced the amount of illegal downloading of music?
Hypothesis: Services like Pandora and Spotify may have done more than lawsuits by record companies to discourage illegal downloads of music.
Question: How dangerous is nuclear energy, really?
Hypothesis: The danger posed by nuclear power plants is far less than that attributable to other viable energy sources.
Question: Why can’t politicians and citizens agree about the threat posed by the huge federal deficit?
Hypothesis: People with different points of view read different threats into the budget numbers and so react differently.
• Examples of Arguable Factual Claims
A campus survey that shows that far more students have read Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban than Hamlet indicates that our current core curriculum lacks depth.
Evidence suggests that the European conquest of the Americas may have had more to do with infectious diseases than any superiority in technology or weaponry.
In the long run, dieting may be more harmful than moderate overeating.
• Preparing a Proposal
169
If your instructor asks you to prepare a proposal for your project, here’s a format that may help:
State your thesis or hypothesis completely. If you are having trouble doing so, try outlining it in Toulmin terms:
Claim:
Reason(s):
Warrant(s):
Alternatively, you might describe the complications of a factual issue you hope to explore in your project, with the thesis perhaps coming later.
Explain why the issue you’re examining is important, and provide the context for raising the issue. Are you introducing new information, making available information better known, correcting what has been reported incorrectly, or complicating what has been understood more simply?
Identify and describe those readers you most hope to reach with your argument. Why is this group of readers most appropriate for your project? What are their interests in the subject? How might you involve them in the paper?
Discuss the kinds of evidence you expect to use in the project and the research the paper will require.
Briefly discuss the key challenges you anticipate in preparing your argument.
• Considering Format and Media
Your instructor may specify that you use a particular format and/or medium. If not, ask yourself these questions to help you make a good choice:
What format is most appropriate for your argument of fact? Does it call for an academic essay, a report, an infographic, a brochure, or something else?
What medium is most appropriate for your argument? Would it be best delivered orally to a live audience? Presented as an audio essay or podcast? Presented in print only or in print with illustrations?
170
Will you need visuals, such as moving or still images, maps, graphs, charts — and what function will they play in your argument? Make sure they are not just “added on” but are necessary components of the argument.
• Thinking about Organization
The simplest structure for a factual argument is to make a claim and then prove it. But even a basic approach needs an introductory section that provides a context for the claim and a concluding section that assesses the implications of the argument. A factual argument that corrects an error or provides an alternative view of some familiar concept or historical event will also need a section early on explaining what the error or the common belief is. Be sure your opening section answers the who, what, where, when, how, and (maybe) why questions that readers will bring to the case.
Factual arguments offered in some academic fields follow formulas and templates. A format favored in the hard sciences and also in the social and behavioral sciences is known by its acronym, IMRAD, which stands for Introduction, Methods, Research, and Discussion. Another typical format calls for an abstract, a review of literature, a discussion of method, an analysis, and a references list. When you have flexibility in the structure of your argument, it makes sense to lead with a striking example to interest readers in your subject and then to conclude with your strongest evidence. Pay particular attention to transitions between key points.
If you are defending a specific claim, anticipate the ways people with different points of view might respond to your argument. Consider how to address such differences respectfully in the body of your argument. But don’t let a factual argument with a persuasive thesis end with concessions or refutations, especially in pieces for the general public. Such a strategy leaves readers thinking about problems with your claim at precisely the point when they should be impressed by its strengths. On the other hand, if your factual argument becomes exploratory, you may find yourself simply presenting a range of positions.
• Getting and Giving Response: Questions for Peer Response
171
Your instructor may assign you to a group for the purpose of reading and responding to each other’s drafts. If not, ask for responses from serious readers or consultants at a writing center. Use the following questions to evaluate a colleague’s draft. Since specific comments help more than general observations, be sure to illustrate your comments with examples. Some of the questions below assume a conventional, thesis-driven project, but more exploratory or invitational arguments of fact also need to be clearly phrased, organized, and supported with evidence.
The Claim
Does the claim clearly raise a serious and arguable factual issue?
Is the claim as clear and specific as possible?
Is the claim qualified? If so, how?
Evidence for the Claim
Is the evidence provided enough to persuade readers to believe your claim? If not, what additional evidence would help? Does any of the evidence seem inappropriate or ineffective? Why?
Is the evidence in support of the claim simply announced, or do you explain its significance and appropriateness? Is more discussion needed?
Are readers’ potential objections to the claim or evidence addressed adequately? Are alternative positions understood thoroughly and presented fairly?
What kinds of sources are cited? How credible and persuasive will they be to readers? What other kinds of sources might work better?
Are all quotations introduced with appropriate signal phrases (such as “As Tyson argues, . . .”) and blended smoothly into the writer’s sentences?
Are all visuals titled and labeled appropriately? Have you introduced them and commented on their significance?
Organization and Style
How are the parts of the argument organized? Is this organization effective?
Will readers understand the relationships among the claims, supporting reasons, warrants, and evidence? If not, how might those connections be clearer? Is the function of every visual clear? Are more transitions needed? Would headings or graphic devices help?
Are the transitions or links from point to point, sentence to sentence, and paragraph to paragraph clear and effective? If not, how could they be improved?
172
Are all visuals carefully integrated into the text? Is each visual introduced and commented on to point out its significance? Is each visual labeled as a figure or a table and given a caption as well as a citation?
Is the style suited to the subject? Is it too formal, casual, or technical? Can it be improved?
Which sentences seem effective? Which ones seem weaker, and how could they be improved? Should short sentences be combined, and any longer ones be broken up?
How effective are the paragraphs? Too short or too long? How can they be improved?
Which words or phrases seem effective? Do any seem vague or inappropriate for the audience or the writer’s purpose? Are technical or unfamiliar terms defined?
Spelling, Punctuation, Mechanics, Documentation, and Format
Are there any errors in spelling, punctuation, capitalization, and the like?
Is an appropriate and consistent style of documentation used for parenthetical citations and the list of works cited or references? (See Chapter 22.)
Does the paper or project follow an appropriate format? Is it appropriately designed and attractively presented? How could it be improved?
173