A1

GLOSSARY

793

academic argument writing that is addressed to an audience well informed about the topic, that aims to convey a clear and compelling point in a somewhat formal style, and that follows agreed-upon conventions of usage, punctuation, and formats.

accidental condition in a definition, an element that helps to explain what’s being defined but isn’t essential to it. An accidental condition in defining a bird might be “ability to fly” because most, but not all, birds can fly. (See also essential condition and sufficient condition.)

ad hominem argument a fallacy of argument in which a writer’s claim is answered by irrelevant attacks on his/her character.

allusion an indirect reference. Saying “watch out or you’ll create the next Edsel” contains an allusion to the Ford Edsel, a disastrously unpopular and unsuccessful product of the late 1950s.

analogy an extended comparison between something unfamiliar and something more familiar for the purpose of illuminating or dramatizing the unfamiliar. An analogy might, say, compare nuclear fission (less familiar) to a pool player’s opening break (more familiar).

anaphora a figure of speech involving repetition, particularly of the same word at the beginning of several clauses.

antithesis the use of parallel structures to call attention to contrasts or opposites, as in Some like it hot; some like it cold.

antonomasia use of a title, epithet, or description in place of a name, as in Your Honor for Judge.

argument (1) a spoken, written, or visual text that expresses a point of view; (2) the use of evidence and reason to discover some version of the truth, as distinct from persuasion, the attempt to change someone else’s point of view.

artistic appeal support for an argument that a writer creates based on principles of reason and shared knowledge rather than on facts and evidence. (See also inartistic appeal.)

assumption a belief regarded as true, upon which other claims are based.

assumption, cultural a belief regarded as true or commonsensical within a particular culture, such as the belief in individual freedom in American culture.

audience the person or persons to whom an argument is directed.

authority the quality conveyed by a writer who is knowledgeable about his/her subject and confident in that knowledge.

background the information a writer provides to create the context for an argument.

backing in Toulmin argument, the evidence provided to support a warrant.

794

bandwagon appeal a fallacy of argument in which a course of action is recommended on the grounds that everyone else is following it.

begging the question a fallacy of argument in which a claim is based on the very grounds that are in doubt or dispute: Rita can’t be the bicycle thief; she’s never stolen anything.

causal argument an argument that seeks to explain the effect(s) of a cause, the cause(s) of an effect, or a causal chain in which A causes B, B causes C, C causes D, and so on.

ceremonial argument an argument that deals with current values and addresses questions of praise and blame. Also called epideictic, ceremonial arguments include eulogies and graduation speeches.

character, appeal based on a strategy in which a writer presents an authoritative, credible self-image in order to gain the trust of an audience.

circumstantial evidence in legal cases, evidence from which conclusions cannot be drawn directly but have to be inferred.

claim a statement that asserts a belief or truth. In arguments, most claims require supporting evidence. The claim is a key component in Toulmin argument.

classical oration a highly structured form of an argument developed in ancient Greece and Rome to defend or refute a thesis. The oration evolved to include six parts—exordium, narratio, partitio, confirmatio, refutatio, and peroratio.

confirmatio the fourth part of a classical oration, in which a speaker or writer offers evidence for the claim.

connotation the suggestions or associations that surround most words and extend beyond their literal meaning, creating associational effects. Slender and skinny have similar meanings, for example, but carry different connotations, the former more positive than the latter.

context the entire situation in which a piece of writing takes place, including the writer’s purpose(s) for writing; the intended audience; the time and place of writing; the institutional, social, personal, and other influences on the piece of writing; the material conditions of writing (whether it’s, for instance, online or on paper, in handwriting or in print); and the writer’s attitude toward the subject and the audience.

conviction the belief that a claim or course of action is true or reasonable. In a proposal argument, a writer must move an audience beyond conviction to action.

credibility an impression of integrity, honesty, and trustworthiness conveyed by a writer in an argument.

criterion (plural criteria) in evaluative arguments, a standard by which something is measured to determine its quality or value.

deductive reasoning a process of thought in which general principles are applied to particular cases.

definition, argument of an argument in which the claim specifies that something does or doesn’t meet the conditions or features set forth in a definition: Pluto is not a major planet.

deliberative argument an argument that deals with action to be taken in the future, focusing on matters of policy. Deliberative arguments include parliamentary debates and campaign platforms.

delivery the presentation of an argument.

795

dogmatism a fallacy of argument in which a claim is supported on the grounds that it’s the only conclusion acceptable within a given community.

either/or choice a fallacy of argument in which a complicated issue is misrepresented as offering only two possible alternatives, one of which is often made to seem vastly preferable to the other.

emotional appeal a strategy in which a writer tries to generate specific emotions (such as fear, envy, anger, or pity) in an audience to dispose it to accept a claim.

enthymeme in Toulmin argument, a statement that links a claim to a supporting reason: The bank will fail (claim) because it has lost the support of its largest investors (reason). In classical rhetoric, an enthymeme is a syllogism with one term understood but not stated: Socrates is mortal because he is a human being. (The understood term is All human beings are mortal.) (See also syllogism.)

epideictic argument See ceremonial argument.

equivocation a fallacy of argument in which a lie is given the appearance of truth, or in which the truth is misrepresented in deceptive language.

essential condition in a definition, an element that must be part of the definition but, by itself, isn’t enough to define the term. An essential condition in defining a bird might be “winged”: all birds have wings, yet wings alone don’t define a bird since some insects and mammals also have wings. (See also accidental condition and sufficient condition.)

ethical appeal See character, appeal based on, and ethos.

ethnographic observation a form of field research involving close and extended observation of a group, event, or phenomenon; careful and detailed note-taking during the observation; analysis of the notes; and interpretation of that analysis.

ethos the self-image a writer creates to define a relationship with readers. In arguments, most writers try to establish an ethos that suggests authority, fairness, and credibility.

evaluation, argument of an argument in which the claim specifies that something does or doesn’t meet established criteria: The Nikon D4s is the most sophisticated digital SLR camera currently available.

evidence material offered to support an argument. (See artistic appeal and inartistic appeal.)

example, definition by a definition that operates by identifying individual examples of what’s being defined: sports car—Corvette, Viper, Miata, Cayman.

exordium the first part of a classical oration, in which a speaker or writer tries to win the attention and goodwill of an audience while introducing a subject.

experimental evidence evidence gathered through experimentation; often evidence that can be quantified (for example, a survey of students before and after an election might yield statistical evidence about changes in their attitudes toward the candidates). Experimental evidence is frequently crucial to scientific arguments.

fact, argument of an argument in which the claim can be proved or disproved with specific evidence or testimony: The winter of 2012 was the warmest on record for the United States.

fallacy of argument a flaw in the structure of an argument that renders its conclusion invalid or suspect. (See ad hominem argument, bandwagon appeal, begging the question, dogmatism, either/or choice, equivocation, false authority, faulty analogy, faulty causality, hasty generalization, non sequitur, scare tactic, sentimental appeal, slippery slope, and straw man.)

796

false authority a fallacy of argument in which a claim is based on the expertise of someone who lacks appropriate credentials.

faulty analogy a fallacy of argument in which a comparison between two objects or concepts is inaccurate or inconsequential.

faulty causality a fallacy of argument making the unwarranted assumption that because one event follows another, the first event causes the second. Also called post hoc, ergo propter hoc, faulty causality forms the basis of many superstitions.

firsthand evidence data—including surveys, observations, personal interviews, etc.—collected and personally examined by the writer. (See also secondhand evidence.)

forensic argument an argument that deals with actions that have occurred in the past. Sometimes called judicial arguments, forensic arguments include legal cases involving judgments of guilt or innocence.

formal definition a definition that identifies something first by the general class to which it belongs (see genus) and then by the characteristics that distinguish it from other members of that class (see species): Baseball is a game (genus) played on a diamond by opposing teams of nine players who score runs by circling bases after striking a ball with a bat (species).

genus in a definition, the general class to which an object or a concept belongs: baseball is a sport; green is a color.

grounds in Toulmin argument, the evidence provided to support a claim and reason—that is, an enthymeme.

hard evidence support for an argument using facts, statistics, testimony, or other evidence the writer finds.

hasty generalization a fallacy of argument in which an inference is drawn from insufficient data.

hyperbole use of overstatement for special effect.

hypothesis a well-informed guess at what the conclusion of one’s research will reveal. Hypotheses must be tested against evidence, opposing arguments, and so on.

immediate reason the cause that leads directly to an effect, such as an automobile accident that results in an injury to the driver. (See also necessary reason and sufficient reason.)

inartistic appeal support for an argument using facts, statistics, eyewitness testimony, or other evidence the writer finds rather than creates. (See also artistic appeal.)

inductive reasoning a process of thought in which particular cases lead to general principles.

infotention a term coined by Howard Rheingold to describe the digital literacy skills of managing the technology we use and synthesizing the information we find online.

intended readers the actual, real-life people whom a writer consciously wants to address in a piece of writing.

invention the process of finding and creating arguments to support a claim.

inverted word order moving grammatical elements of a sentence out of their usual order (subject-verb-object/complement) for special effect, as in Tired I was; sleepy I was not.

invitational argument a term used by Sonja Foss and Cindy Griffin to describe arguments that are aimed not at vanquishing an opponent but at inviting others to collaborate in exploring mutually satisfying ways to solve problems.

invoked readers the readers implied in a text, which may include some whom the writer didn’t consciously intend to reach. An argument that refers to those who have experienced a major trauma, for example, invokes all readers who have undergone this experience.

irony use of language that suggests a meaning in contrast to the literal meaning of the words.

kairos the opportune moment; in arguments, the timeliness of an argument and the most opportune ways to make it.

line of argument a strategy or an approach used in an argument. Argumentative strategies include appeals to the heart (emotional appeals), to character (ethical appeals), and to facts and reason (logical appeals).

logical appeal a strategy in which a writer uses facts, evidence, and reason to convince audience members to accept a claim.

logos See logical appeal.

metaphor a figure of speech that makes a comparison, as in The ship was a beacon of hope.

metonymy a rhetorical trope in which a writer uses a particular object to stand for a general concept, as in referring to businesspeople as “suits” or to the English monarchy as “the crown.”

narratio the second part of a classical oration, in which a speaker or writer presents the facts of a case.

necessary reason a cause that must be present for an effect to occur; for example, infection with a particular virus is a necessary reason for the development of mumps. (See also immediate reason and sufficient reason.)

non sequitur a fallacy of argument in which claims, reasons, or warrants fail to connect logically; one point doesn’t follow from another: If you’re really my friend, you’ll lend me five hundred dollars.

operational definition a definition that identifies an object by what it does or by the conditions that create it: A line is the shortest distance between two points.

oxymoron a rhetorical trope that states a paradox or contradiction, as in “jumbo shrimp.”

parallelism use of similar grammatical structures or forms for clarity, emphasis, and/or artfulness: in the classroom, on the playground, and at the mall.

paraphrase a restatement of the meaning of a piece of writing using different words from the original.

partitio the third part of a classical oration, in which a speaker or writer divides up the subject and explains what the claim will be.

patchwriting a misuse of sources in which a writer’s phrase, clause, or sentence stays too close to the original language or syntax of the source.

pathos, appeal to See emotional appeal.

peroratio the sixth and final part of a classical oration, in which a speaker or writer summarizes the case and moves the audience to action.

persuasion the act of seeking to change someone else’s point of view.

plagiarism the act of using the words, phrases, and expressions of others without proper citation or acknowledgment.

precedents actions or judgments in the past that have established a pattern or model for subsequent decisions. Precedents are particularly important in legal cases.

premise a statement or position regarded as true and upon which other claims are based.

propaganda an argument advancing a point of view without regard to reason, fairness, or truth.

798

proposal argument an argument in which a claim is made in favor of or opposing a specific course of action: Sport-utility vehicles should have to meet the same fuel economy standards as passenger cars.

purpose the goal of an argument. Purposes include entertaining, informing, convincing, exploring, and deciding, among others.

qualifiers words or phrases that limit the scope of a claim: usually; in a few cases; under these circumstances.

qualitative argument an argument of evaluation that relies on non-numerical criteria supported by reason, tradition, precedent, or logic.

quantitative argument an argument of evaluation that relies on criteria that can be measured, counted, or demonstrated objectively.

quantitative data the sort of data that can be observed and counted.

reason in writing, a statement that expands a claim by offering evidence to support it. The reason may be a statement of fact or another claim. In Toulmin argument, a reason is attached to a claim by a warrant, a statement that establishes the logical connection between claim and supporting reason. (See also Toulmin argument.)

rebuttal an answer that challenges or refutes a specific claim or charge. Rebuttals may also be offered by writers who anticipate objections to the claims or evidence they offer.

rebuttal, conditions of in Toulmin argument, potential objections to an argument. Writers need to anticipate such conditions in shaping their arguments.

red herring a fallacy of argument in which a writer abruptly changes the topic in order to distract readers from potentially objectionable claims.

refutatio the fifth part of a classical oration, in which a speaker or writer acknowledges and refutes opposing claims or evidence.

reversed structures a figure of speech that involves the inversion of clauses: What is good in your writing is not original; what is original is not good.

rhetoric the art of persuasion. Western rhetoric originated in ancient Greece as a discipline to prepare citizens for arguing cases in court.

rhetorical analysis an examination of how well the components of an argument work together to persuade or move an audience.

rhetorical questions questions posed to raise an issue or create an effect rather than to get a response: You may well wonder, “What’s in a name?”

rhetorical situation the relationship between topic, author, audience, and other contexts (social, cultural, political) that determine or evoke an appropriate spoken or written response.

Rogerian argument an approach to argumentation based on the principle, articulated by psychotherapist Carl Rogers, that audiences respond best when they don’t feel threatened. Rogerian argument stresses trust and urges those who disagree to find common ground.

scare tactic a fallacy of argument presenting an issue in terms of exaggerated threats or dangers.

scheme a figure of speech that involves a special arrangement of words, such as inversion.

secondhand evidence any information taken from outside sources, including library research and online sources. (See also firsthand evidence.)

sentimental appeal a fallacy of argument in which an appeal is based on excessive emotion.

signifying a distinctive trope found extensively in African American English in which a speaker or writer cleverly and often humorously needles another person.

799

simile a comparison that uses like or as: My love is like a red, red rose or I wandered lonely as a cloud.

slippery slope a fallacy of argument exaggerating the possibility that a relatively inconsequential action or choice today will have serious adverse consequences in the future.

species in a definition, the particular features that distinguish one member of a genus from another: Baseball is a sport (genus) played on a diamond by teams of nine players (species).

stacking the deck a fallacy of argument in which the writer shows only one side of an argument.

stance the writer’s attitude toward the topic and the audience.

stasis theory in classical rhetoric, a method for coming up with appropriate arguments by determining the nature of a given situation: a question of fact; of definition; of quality; or of policy.

straw man a fallacy of argument in which an opponent’s position is misrepresented as being more extreme than it actually is, so that it’s easier to refute.

sufficient condition in a definition, an element or set of elements adequate to define a term. A sufficient condition in defining God, for example, might be “supreme being” or “first cause.” No other conditions are necessary, though many might be made. (See also accidental condition and essential condition.)

sufficient reason a cause that alone is enough to produce a particular effect; for example, a particular level of smoke in the air will set off a smoke alarm. (See also immediate reason and necessary reason.)

summary a presentation of the substance and main points of a piece of writing in very condensed form.

syllogism in formal logic, a structure of deductive logic in which correctly formed major and minor premises lead to a necessary conclusion:

testimony a personal experience or observation used to support an argument.

thesis a sentence that succinctly states a writer’s main point.

Toulmin argument a method of informal logic first described by Stephen Toulmin in The Uses of Argument (1958). Toulmin argument describes the key components of an argument as the claim, reason, warrant, backing, and grounds.

trope a figure of speech that involves a change in the usual meaning or signification of words, such as metaphor, simile, and analogy.

understatement a figure of speech that makes a weaker statement than a situation seems to call for. It can lead to powerful or to humorous effects.

values, appeal to a strategy in which a writer invokes shared principles and traditions of a society as a reason for accepting a claim.

warrant in Toulmin argument, the statement (expressed or implied) that establishes the logical connection between a claim and its supporting reason.