Aristotle categorized argumentative appeals into three types: emotional appeals that speak to readers’ hearts and values (known to the ancient Greeks as pathos), ethical appeals that support the writer’s character (ethos), and logical appeals that use facts and evidence (logos).

Emotional appeals

Emotional appeals stir your emotions and remind you of deeply held values. When politicians argue that the country needs more tax relief, they almost always use examples of one or more families they have met, stressing the concrete ways in which a tax cut would improve the quality of their lives. Doing so creates a strong emotional appeal. Some have criticized the use of emotional appeals in argument, claiming that they are a form of manipulation intended to mislead an audience. But emotional appeals are an important part of almost every argument. Critical readers are perfectly capable of “talking back” to such appeals by analyzing them, deciding which are acceptable and which are not.

The accompanying photo shows protesters at an Occupy Wall Street demonstration outside the New York Stock Exchange. The protesters’ signs range from a simple logo for the United Auto Workers union to hand-painted cardboard slogans (“This is patriotic”) to an American flag. To what emotions are the protesters appealing? Do you find this appeal effective, manipulative, or both? Would you accept this argument?

Ethical appeals

Ethical appeals support the credibility, moral character, and goodwill of the argument’s creator. These appeals are especially important for critical readers to recognize and evaluate. We may respect and admire an athlete, for example, but should we invest in the mutual funds the athlete promotes? To identify ethical appeals in arguments, ask yourself these questions: How does the creator of the argument show that he or she has really done the homework on the subject and is knowledgeable and credible about it? What sort of character does he or she build, and how? More important, is that character trustworthy? What does the creator of the argument do to show that he or she has the best interests of an audience in mind? Do those best interests match your own, and, if not, how does that alter the effectiveness of the argument?

Logical appeals

Logical appeals are viewed as especially trustworthy: “The facts don’t lie,” some say. Of course, facts are not the only type of logical appeals, which also include firsthand evidence drawn from observations, interviews, surveys and questionnaires, experiments, and personal experience; and secondhand evidence drawn from authorities, the testimony of others, statistics, and other print and online sources. Critical readers need to examine logical appeals just as carefully as emotional and ethical ones. What is the source of the logical appeal—and is that source trustworthy? Are all terms defined clearly? Has the logical evidence presented been taken out of context, and, if so, does that change its meaning?

Analyzing appeals in a visual argument

The poster below, from TurnAround, an organization devoted to helping victims of domestic violence, is “intended to strike a chord with abusers as well as their victims.” The dramatic combination of words and image builds on an analogy between a child and a target and makes strong emotional and ethical appeals.

The bull’s-eye that draws your attention to the center of the poster is probably the first thing you notice when you look at the image. Then you may observe that the “target” is, in fact, a child’s body; it also has arms, legs, and a head with wide, staring eyes. The heading at the upper left, “A child is not a target,” reinforces the bull’s-eye/child connection.

This poster’s stark image and headline appeal to viewers’ emotions, offering the uncomfortable reminder that children are often the victims of domestic violence. The design causes viewers to see a target first and only afterward recognize that the target is actually a child—an unsettling experience. But the poster also offers ethical appeals (“TurnAround can help”) to show that the organization is credible and that it supports the worthwhile goal of ending “the cycle of domestic violence” by offering counseling and other support services. Finally, it uses the logical appeal of a statistic, noting that TurnAround has served “more than 10,000 women, children and men each year” and giving specific information about where to get help.