General spelling rules can help writers enormously, but many rules have exceptions. When in doubt, consult a dictionary.
i before e except after c
Here is a slightly expanded version of the “i before e” rule:
| I BEFORE E | achieve, brief, field, friend |
| EXCEPT AFTER C | ceiling, receipt, perceive |
| OR WHEN PRONOUNCED AY | eighth, neighbor, reign, weigh |
| OR IN WEIRD EXCEPTIONS | either, foreign, height, leisure, neither, seize |
Word endings (suffixes)
FINAL SILENT E
Drop the final silent e when you add an ending that starts with a vowel.
| imagine + -able = imaginable | exercise + -ing = exercising |
Generally, keep the final e if the ending starts with a consonant. Common exceptions include argument, judgment, noticeable, and truly.
| force + -ful = forceful | state + -ly = stately |
FINAL Y
When adding an ending to a word that ends in a consonant plus y, change the y to an i in most cases.
| try, tried | busy, busily |
Keep the y if it is part of a proper name or if the ending begins with i.
| Kennedy, Kennedyesque | dry, drying |
FINAL CONSONANTS
When adding an ending beginning with a vowel to a word that ends with a vowel and a consonant, double the final consonant if the original word is one syllable or if the accent is on the same syllable in both the original and the new word.
| stop, stopped | begin, beginner | refer, referral |
Otherwise, do not double the final consonant.
| bait, baiting | start, started | refer, reference |
Plurals
ADDING -S OR -ES
For most nouns, add -s. For words ending in s, ch, sh, x, or z, add -es.
| pencil, pencils | church, churches | bus, buses |
In general, add -s to nouns ending in o if the o is preceded by a vowel. Add -es if the o is preceded by a consonant.
| rodeo, rodeos | patio, patios | potato, potatoes | hero, heroes |
For some nouns ending in f or fe, change f to v, and add -s or -es.
| calf, calves | life, lives | hoof, hooves |
For compound nouns written as separate or hyphenated words, make the most important part plural, whether or not it is the last part of the compound.
| lieutenant governors | brothers-in-law |
For plurals of numbers and words used as terms, see 42c.
CONSIDERING DISABILITIES
Spelling is especially difficult for people who have trouble processing letters and sounds in sequence. Technology can help: “talking pens” can scan words and read them aloud, and voice-recognition programs can transcribe dictated text.