23f Master spelling rules.

General spelling rules can help writers enormously, but many rules have exceptions. When in doubt, consult a dictionary.

i before e except after c

Here is a slightly expanded version of the “i before e” rule:

I BEFORE E achieve, brief, field, friend
EXCEPT AFTER C ceiling, receipt, perceive
OR WHEN PRONOUNCED AY eighth, neighbor, reign, weigh
OR IN WEIRD EXCEPTIONS either, foreign, height, leisure, neither, seize

Word endings (suffixes)

FINAL SILENT E

Drop the final silent e when you add an ending that starts with a vowel.

imagine + -able = imaginable exercise + -ing = exercising

Generally, keep the final e if the ending starts with a consonant. Common exceptions include argument, judgment, noticeable, and truly.

force + -ful = forceful state + -ly = stately

FINAL Y

When adding an ending to a word that ends in a consonant plus y, change the y to an i in most cases.

try, tried busy, busily

Keep the y if it is part of a proper name or if the ending begins with i.

Kennedy, Kennedyesque dry, drying

FINAL CONSONANTS

When adding an ending beginning with a vowel to a word that ends with a vowel and a consonant, double the final consonant if the original word is one syllable or if the accent is on the same syllable in both the original and the new word.

stop, stopped begin, beginner refer, referral

Otherwise, do not double the final consonant.

bait, baiting start, started refer, reference

Plurals

ADDING -S OR -ES

For most nouns, add -s. For words ending in s, ch, sh, x, or z, add -es.

pencil, pencils church, churches bus, buses

In general, add -s to nouns ending in o if the o is preceded by a vowel. Add -es if the o is preceded by a consonant.

rodeo, rodeos patio, patios potato, potatoes hero, heroes

For some nouns ending in f or fe, change f to v, and add -s or -es.

calf, calves life, lives hoof, hooves

For compound nouns written as separate or hyphenated words, make the most important part plural, whether or not it is the last part of the compound.

lieutenant governors brothers-in-law

For plurals of numbers and words used as terms, see 42c.

Spelling

CONSIDERING DISABILITIES

Spelling is especially difficult for people who have trouble processing letters and sounds in sequence. Technology can help: “talking pens” can scan words and read them aloud, and voice-recognition programs can transcribe dictated text.