Conventions of usage might be called the “good manners” of discourse. And just as manners vary from culture to culture and time to time, so do conventions of usage. Matters of usage, like other language choices you must make, depend on what your purpose is and on what is appropriate for a particular audience at a particular time.

a, an Use a with a word that begins with a consonant (a book), a consonant sound such as “y” or “w” (a euphoric moment, a one-sided match), or a sounded h (a hemisphere). Use an with a word that begins with a vowel (an umbrella), a vowel sound (an X-ray), or a silent h (an honor).

accept, except The verb accept means “receive” or “agree to.” Except is usually a preposition that means “aside from” or “excluding.” All the plaintiffs except Mr. Kim decided to accept the settlement.

advice, advise The noun advice means “opinion” or “suggestion”; the verb advise means “offer advice.” Doctors advise everyone not to smoke, but many people ignore the advice.

affect, effect As a verb, affect means “influence” or “move the emotions of”; as a noun, it means “emotions” or “feelings.” Effect is a noun meaning “result”; less commonly, it is a verb meaning “bring about.” The storm affected a large area. Its effects included widespread power failures. The drug effected a major change in the patient’s affect.

aggravate The formal meaning is “make worse.” Having another mouth to feed aggravated their poverty. In academic and professional writing, avoid using aggravate to mean “irritate” or “annoy.”

all ready, already All ready means “fully prepared.” Already means “previously.” We were all ready for Lucy’s party when we learned that she had already left.

all right, alright Avoid the spelling alright.

all together, altogether All together means “all in a group” or “gathered in one place.” Altogether means “completely” or “everything considered.” When the board members were all together, their mutual distrust was altogether obvious.

allude, elude Allude means “refer indirectly.” Elude means “avoid” or “escape from.” The candidate did not even allude to her opponent. The suspect eluded the police for several days.

allusion, illusion An allusion is an indirect reference. An illusion is a false or misleading appearance. The speaker’s allusion to the Bible created an illusion of piety.

a lot Avoid the spelling alot.

already See all ready, already.

alright See all right, alright.

altogether See all together, altogether.

among, between In referring to two things or people, use between. In referring to three or more, use among. The relationship between the twins is different from that among the other three children.

amount, number Use amount with quantities you cannot count; use number for quantities you can count. A small number of volunteers cleared a large amount of brush.

an See a, an.

and/or Avoid this term except in business or legal writing. Instead of fat and/or protein, write fat, protein, or both.

any body, anybody, any one, anyone Anybody and anyone are pronouns meaning “any person.” Anyone [or anybody] would enjoy this film. Any body is an adjective modifying a noun. Any body of water has its own ecology. Any one is two adjectives or a pronoun modified by an adjective. Customers could buy only two sale items at any one time. The winner could choose any one of the prizes.

anyplace In academic and professional discourse, use anywhere instead.

anyway, anyways In writing, use anyway, not anyways.

apt, liable, likely Likely to means “probably will,” and apt to means “inclines or tends to.” In many instances, they are interchangeable. Liable often carries a more negative sense and is also a legal term meaning “obligated” or “responsible.”

as Avoid sentences in which it is not clear if as means “when” or “because.” For example, does Carl left town as his father was arriving mean “at the same time as his father was arriving” or “because his father was arriving”?

as, as if, like In academic and professional writing, use as or as if instead of like to introduce a clause. The dog howled as if [not like] it were in pain. She did as [not like] I suggested.

assure, ensure, insure Assure means “convince” or “promise”; its direct object is usually a person or persons. She assured voters she would not raise taxes. Ensure and insure both mean “make certain,” but insure usually refers specifically to protection against financial loss. When the city rationed water to ensure that the supply would last, the Browns could no longer afford to insure their car-wash business.

as to Do not use as to as a substitute for about. Karen was unsure about [not as to] Bruce’s intentions.

at, where See where.

awhile, a while Always use a while after a preposition such as for, in, or after. We drove awhile and then stopped for a while.

bad, badly Use bad after a linking verb such as be, feel, or seem. Use badly to modify an action verb, an adjective, or another verb. The hostess felt bad because the dinner was badly prepared.

bare, bear Use bare to mean “uncovered” and bear to refer to the animal or to mean “carry” or “endure”: The walls were bare. The emptiness was hard to bear.

because of, due to Use due to when the effect, stated as a noun, appears before the verb be. His illness was due to malnutrition. (Illness, a noun, is the effect.) Use because of when the effect is stated as a clause. He was sick because of malnutrition. (He was sick, a clause, is the effect.)

being as, being that In academic or professional writing, use because or since instead of these expressions. Because [not being as] Romeo killed Tybalt, he was banished to Padua.

beside, besides Beside is a preposition meaning “next to.” Besides can be a preposition meaning “other than” or an adverb meaning “in addition.” No one besides Francesca would sit beside him.

between See among, between.

brake, break Brake means “to stop” and also refers to a stopping mechanism: Check the brakes. Break means “fracture” or an interruption: The coffee break was too short.

breath, breathe Breath is a noun; breathe, a verb. “Breathe,” said the nurse, so June took a deep breath.

bring, take Use bring when an object is moved from a farther to a nearer place; use take when the opposite is true. Take the box to the post office; bring back my mail.

but that, but what Avoid using these as substitutes for that in expressions of doubt. Hercule Poirot never doubted that [not but that] he would solve the case.

but yet Do not use these words together. He is strong but [not but yet] gentle.

can, may Can refers to ability and may to possibility or permission. Since I can ski the slalom well, I may win the race.

can’t hardly Hardly has a negative meaning; therefore, can’t hardly is a double negative. This expression is commonly used in some varieties of English but is not used in academic English. Tim can [not can’t] hardly wait.

can’t help but This expression is redundant. Use I can’t help going rather than I can’t help but go.

censor, censure Censor means “remove that which is considered offensive.” Censure means “formally reprimand.” The newspaper censored stories that offended advertisers. The legislature censured the official for misconduct.

compare to, compare with Compare to means “regard as similar.” Jamie compared the loss to a kick in the head. Compare with means “examine to find differences or similarities.” Compare Tim Burton’s films with David Lynch’s.

complement, compliment Complement means “go well with.” Compliment means “praise.” Guests complimented her on how her earrings complemented her gown.

comprise, compose Comprise means “contain.” Compose means “make up.” The class comprises twenty students. Twenty students compose the class.

conscience, conscious Conscience means “a sense of right and wrong.” Conscious means “awake” or “aware.” Lisa was conscious of a guilty conscience.

consensus of opinion Use consensus instead of this redundant phrase. The family consensus was to sell the old house.

consequently, subsequently Consequently means “as a result”; subsequently means “then.” He quit, and subsequently his wife lost her job; consequently, they had to sell their house.

continual, continuous Continual means “repeated at regular or frequent intervals.” Continuous means “continuing or connected without a break.” The damage done by continuous erosion was increased by the continual storms.

could of Have, not of, should follow could, would, should, or might. We could have [not of] invited them.

criteria, criterion Criterion means “standard of judgment” or “necessary qualification.” Criteria is the plural form. Image is the wrong criterion for choosing a president.

data Data is the plural form of the Latin word datum, meaning “fact.” Although data is used informally as either singular or plural, in academic or professional writing, treat data as plural. These data indicate that fewer people are smoking.

different from, different than Different from is generally preferred in academic and professional writing, although both phrases are widely used. Her lab results were no different from [not than] his.

discreet, discrete Discreet means “tactful” or “prudent.” Discrete means “separate” or “distinct.” The leader’s discreet efforts kept all the discrete factions unified.

disinterested, uninterested Disinterested means “unbiased.” Uninterested means “indifferent.” Finding disinterested jurors was difficult. She was uninterested in the verdict.

distinct, distinctive Distinct means “separate” or “well defined.” Distinctive means “characteristic.” Germany includes many distinct regions, each with a distinctive accent.

doesn’t, don’t Doesn’t is the contraction for does not. Use it with he, she, it, and singular nouns. Don’t stands for do not; use it with I, you, we, they, and plural nouns.

due to See because of, due to.

each other, one another Use each other in sentences involving two subjects and one another in sentences involving more than two.

effect See affect, effect.

elicit, illicit The verb elicit means “draw out.” The adjective illicit means “illegal.” The police elicited from the criminal the names of others involved in illicit activities.

elude See allude, elude.

emigrate from, immigrate to Emigrate from means “move away from one’s country.” Immigrate to means “move to another country.” We emigrated from Norway in 1999. We immigrated to the United States.

ensure See assure, ensure, insure.

enthused, enthusiastic Use enthusiastic rather than enthused in academic and professional writing.

equally as good Replace this redundant phrase with equally good or as good.

every day, everyday Everyday is an adjective meaning “ordinary.” Every day is an adjective and a noun, meaning “each day.” I wore everyday clothes almost every day.

every one, everyone Everyone is a pronoun. Every one is an adjective and a pronoun, referring to each member of a group. Because he began after everyone else, David could not finish every one of the problems.

except See accept, except.

explicit, implicit Explicit means “directly or openly expressed.” Implicit means “indirectly expressed or implied.” The explicit message of the ad urged consumers to buy the product, while the implicit message promised popularity if they did so.

farther, further Farther refers to physical distance. How much farther is it to Munich? Further refers to time or degree. I want to avoid further delays.

fewer, less Use fewer with nouns that can be counted. Use less with general amounts that you cannot count. The world needs fewer bombs and less hostility.

finalize Finalize is a pretentious way of saying “end” or “make final.” We closed [not finalized] the deal.

firstly, secondly, etc. First, second, etc., are more common in U.S. English.

flaunt, flout Flaunt means to “show off.” Flout means to “mock” or “scorn.” The drug dealers flouted authority by flaunting their wealth.

former, latter Former refers to the first and latter to the second of two things previously mentioned. Kathy and Anna are athletes; the former plays tennis, and the latter runs.

further See farther, further.

good, well Good is an adjective and should not be used as a substitute for the adverb well. Gabriel is a good host who cooks well.

good and Good and is colloquial for “very”; avoid it in academic and professional writing.

hanged, hung Hanged refers to executions; hung is used for all other meanings.

hardly See can’t hardly.

herself, himself, myself, yourself Do not use these reflexive pronouns as subjects or as objects unless they are necessary. Jane and I [not myself] agree. They invited John and me [not myself?].

he/she, his/her Better solutions for avoiding sexist language are to write out he or she, to eliminate pronouns entirely, or to make the subject plural. Instead of writing Everyone should carry his/her driver’s license, try Drivers should carry their licenses or People should carry their driver’s licenses.

himself See herself, himself, myself, yourself.

hisself Use himself instead in academic or professional writing.

hopefully Hopefully is often used informally to mean “it is hoped,” but its formal meaning is “with hope.” Sam watched the roulette wheel hopefully [not Hopefully, Sam will win].

hung See hanged, hung.

illicit See elicit, illicit.

illusion See allusion, illusion.

immigrate to See emigrate from, immigrate to.

impact Some readers object to the colloquial use of impact or impacton as a verb meaning “affect.” Population control may reduce [not impact] world hunger.

implicit See explicit, implicit.

imply, infer To imply is to suggest indirectly. To infer is to guess or conclude on the basis of an indirect suggestion. The note implied they were planning a small wedding; we inferred we would not be invited.

inside of, outside of Use inside and outside instead. The class regularly met outside [not outside of] the building.

insure See assure, ensure, insure.

interact, interface Interact is a vague word meaning “do something that somehow involves another person.” Interface is computer jargon; when used as a verb, it means “discuss” or “communicate.” Avoid both verbs in academic and professional writing.

irregardless, regardless Irregardless is a double negative. Use regardless.

is when, is where These vague expressions are often incorrectly used in definitions. Schizophrenia is a psychotic condition in which [not is when or is where] a person withdraws from reality.

its, it’s Its is the possessive form of it. It’s is a contraction for it is or it has. It’s important to observe the rat before it eats its meal.

kind, sort, type These singular nouns should be modified with this or that, not these or those, and followed by other singular nouns, not plural nouns. Wear this kind of dress [not those kind of dresses].

kind of, sort of Avoid these colloquialisms. Amy was somewhat [not kind of] tired.

know, no Use know to mean “understand.” No is the opposite of yes.

later, latter Later means “after some time.” Latter refers to the second of two items named. Juan and Chad won all their early matches, but the latter was injured later in the season.

latter See former, latter and later, latter.

lay, lie Lay means “place” or “put.” Its main forms are lay, laid, laid. It generally has a direct object, specifying what has been placed. She laid her books on the desk. Lie means “recline” or “be positioned” and does not take a direct object. Its main forms are lie, lay, lain. She lay awake until two.

leave, let Leave means “go away.” Let means “allow.” Leave alone and let alone are interchangeable. Let me leave now, and leave[or let] me alone from now on!

lend, loan In academic and professional writing, do not use loan as a verb; use lend instead. Please lend me your pen so that I may fill out this application for a loan.

less See fewer, less.

let See leave, let.

liable See apt, liable, likely.

lie See lay, lie.

like See as, as if, like.

likely See apt, liable, likely.

literally Literally means “actually” or “exactly as stated.” Use it to stress the truth of a statement that might otherwise be understood as figurative. Do not use literally as an intensifier in a figurative statement. Mirna was literally at the edge of her seat may be accurate, but Mirna is so hungry that she could literally eat a horse is not.

loan See lend, loan.

loose, lose Lose is a verb meaning “misplace.” Loose is an adjective that means “not securely attached.” Sew on that loose button before you lose it.

lots, lots of Avoid these informal expressions meaning “much” or “many” in academic or professional discourse.

man, mankind Replace these terms with people, humans, humankind, men and women, or similar wording.

may See can, may.

may be, maybe May be is a verb phrase. Maybe is an adverb that means “perhaps.” He may be the head of the organization, but maybe someone else would handle a crisis better.

media Media is the plural form of the noun medium and takes a plural verb. The media are [not is] obsessed with scandals.

might of See could of.

moral, morale A moral is a succinct lesson. The moral of the story is that generosity is rewarded. Morale means “spirit” or “mood.” Office morale was low.

myself See herself, himself, myself, yourself.

no See know, no.

nor, or Use either with or and neither with nor.

number See amount, number.

off, of Use off without of. The spaghetti slipped off [not off of] the plate.

OK, O.K., okay All are acceptable spellings, but avoid the term in academic and professional discourse.

on account of Use this substitute for because of sparingly or not at all.

one another See each other, one another.

or See nor, or.

outside of See inside of, outside of.

owing to the fact that Avoid this and other wordy expressions for because.

passed, past Use passed to mean “went by” or “received a passing grade”: The marching band passed the reviewing stand. Use past to refer to a time before the present: Historians study the past.

per Use the Latin per only in standard technical phrases such as miles per hour. Otherwise, find English equivalents. As mentioned in [not As per] the latest report, the country’s average food consumption each day [not per day] is only 2,000 calories.

percent, percentage Use percent with a specific number; use percentage with an adjective such as large or small. Last year, 80 percent of the members were female. A large percentage of the members are women.

plenty Plenty means “enough” or “a great abundance.” They told us America was a land of plenty. Colloquially, it is used to mean “very,” a usage you should avoid in academic and professional writing. He was very [not plenty] tired.

plus Plus means “in addition to.” Your salary plus mine will cover our expenses. In academic writing, do not use plus to mean “besides” or “moreover.” That dress does not fit me. Besides [not Plus], it is the wrong color.

precede, proceed Precede means “come before”; proceed means “go forward.” Despite the storm that preceded the ceremony, the wedding proceeded on schedule.

pretty Except in informal situations, avoid using pretty as a substitute for “rather,” “somewhat,” or “quite.” Bill was quite [not pretty] disagreeable.

principal, principle When used as a noun, principal refers to a head official or an amount of money; when used as an adjective, it means “most significant.” Principle means “fundamental law or belief.” Albert went to the principal and defended himself with the principle of free speech.

proceed See precede, proceed.

quotation, quote Quote is a verb, and quotation is a noun. He quoted the president, and the quotation [not quote] was preserved in history books.

raise, rise Raise means “lift” or “move upward.” (Referring to children, it means “bring up.”) It takes a direct object; someone raises something. The guests raised their glasses to toast. Rise means “go upward.” It does not take a direct object; something rises by itself. She saw the steam rise from the pan.

rarely ever Use rarely by itself, or use hardly ever. When we were poor, we rarely went to the movies.

real, really Real is an adjective, and really is an adverb. Do not substitute real for really. In academic and professional writing, do not use real or really to mean “very.” The old man walked very [not real or really] slowly.

reason is because Use either the reason is that or because—not both. The reason the copier stopped is that [not is because] the paper jammed.

reason why This expression is redundant. The reason [not reason why] this book is short is market demand.

regardless See irregardless, regardless.

respectfully, respectively Respectfully means “with respect.” Respectively means “in the order given.” Karen and David are, respectively, a juggler and an acrobat. The children treated their grandparents respectfully.

rise See raise, rise.

set, sit Set usually means “put” or “place” and takes a direct object. Sit refers to taking a seat and does not take an object. Set your cup on the table, and sit down.

should of See could of.

since Be careful not to use since ambiguously. In Since I broke my leg, I’ve stayed home, the word since might be understood to mean either “because” or “ever since.”

sit See set, sit.

so In academic and professional writing, avoid using so alone to mean “very.” Instead, follow so with that to show how the intensified condition leads to a result. Aaron was so tired that he fell asleep at the wheel.

someplace Use somewhere instead in academic and professional writing.

some time, sometime, sometimes Sometime refers to a length of time. Please leave me some time to dress. Sometime means “at some indefinite later time.” Sometime I will take you to London. Sometimes means “occasionally.” Sometimes I eat sushi.

sort See kind, sort, type.

sort of See kind of, sort of.

stationary, stationery Stationary means “standing still”; stationery means “writing paper.” When the bus was stationary, Pat took out stationery and wrote a note.

subsequently See consequently, subsequently.

supposed to, used to Be careful to include the final -d in these expressions. He is supposed to attend.

sure, surely Avoid using sure as an intensifier. Instead, use certainly. I was certainly glad to see you.

take See bring, take.

than, then Use than in comparative statements. The cat was bigger than the dog. Use then when referring to a sequence of events. I won, and then I cried.

that, which A clause beginning with that singles out the item being described. The book that is on the table is a good one specifies the book on the table as opposed to some other book. A clause beginning with which may or may not single out the item, although some writers use which clauses only to add more information about an item being described. The book, which is on the table, is a good one contains a which clause between the commas. The clause simply adds extra, nonessential information about the book; it does not specify which book.

theirselves Use themselves instead in academic and professional writing.

then See than, then.

thorough, threw, through Thorough means “complete”: After a thorough inspection, the restaurant reopened. Threw is the past tense of throw, and through means “in one side and out the other”: He threw the ball through a window.

to, too, two To generally shows direction. Too means “also.” Two is the number. We, too, are going to the meeting in two hours. Avoid using to after where. Where are you flying [not flying to]?

two See to, too, two.

type See kind, sort, type.

uninterested See disinterested, uninterested.

unique Some people argue that unique means “one and only” and object to usage that suggests it means merely “unusual.” In formal writing, avoid constructions such as quite unique.

used to See supposed to, used to.

very Avoid using very to intensify a weak adjective or adverb; instead, replace the adjective or adverb with a stronger, more precise, or more colorful word. Instead of very nice, for example, use kind, warm, sensitive, endearing, or friendly.

way, ways When referring to distance, use way. Graduation was a long way [not ways] off.

well See good, well.

where Use where alone, not with words such as at and to. Where are you going [not going to]?

which See that, which.

who, whom Use who if the word is the subject of the clause and whom if the word is the object of the clause. Monica, who smokes incessantly, is my godmother. (Who is the subject of the clause; the verb is smokes.) Monica, whom I saw last winter, lives in Tucson. (Whom is the object of the verb saw.)

who’s, whose Who’s is a contraction for who is or who has. Who’s on the patio? Whose is a possessive form. Whose sculpture is in the garden? Whose is on the patio?

would of See could of.

yet See but yet.

your, you’re Your shows possession. Bring your sleeping bag along. You’re is the contraction for you are. You’re in the wrong sleeping bag.

yourself See herself, himself, myself, yourself.