REVIEW Research Strategies: How Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions

Learning Objectives

Test Yourself by taking a moment to answer each of these Learning Objective Questions (repeated here from within the module). Research suggests that trying to answer these questions on your own will improve your long-term memory of the concepts (McDaniel et al., 2009).

Question

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ANSWER: Our everyday thinking can be perilous because of three phenomena: hindsight bias, overconfidence, and a tendency to perceive order in random events. Hindsight bias (also called the "I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon") is the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that we would have foreseen it. Overconfidence in our judgments results partly from our bias to seek information that confirms them. These tendencies, plus our eagerness to perceive patterns in random events, lead us to overestimate our intuition. Although limited by the testable questions it can address, scientific inquiry can help us overcome our intuition's biases and shortcomings.

Question

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ANSWER: Psychological theories are explanations that apply an integrated set of principles to organize observations and generate hypotheses—predictions that can be used to check the theory or produce practical applications of it. By testing their hypotheses, researchers can confirm, reject, or revise their theories. To enable other researchers to replicate the studies, researchers report them using precise operational definitions of their procedures and concepts. If others achieve similar results, confidence in the conclusion will be greater.

Question

DR50DZxLYyA7Uy6phVhbu1CTIs1LJwX4I+5L/nkVk1iD+AO+afezlWoEKQfL1KawVTTckis2cZS1GqORfEOOEVa97rlyeI/kTGYTiXPB+ODUhWWaVYUOD8VHeof75oiZlOyY3AMKNam4qoY/TR+2ELEDMCu+4SNS8vzsDxJ0uP/gGHPDVfQRmOAQkZAIyYbnD5q1vDLqCD6Rcnp1izPwCTq2jwDWOr4xHVtYQUmWs5vYXWorUFhPmJz3S34Yqe+ids1fgqXDjRosyU5Yq+FCt3ep9fNsQijLm6YbjvS6hBk=
ANSWER: Descriptive methods, which include case studies, naturalistic observations, and surveys, show us what can happen, and they may offer ideas for further study. The best basis for generalizing about a population is a representative sample; in a random sample, every person in the entire population being studied has an equal chance of participating. Descriptive methods cannot show cause and effect because researchers cannot control variables.

Question

HHgRUbuzeZMMClNs7vfNEMCdAHYSfUy1TxRMYIvLnlllI2A5TDshPHoCy/IY5wNIf4w1nlP7QxKc1Fs6I4iKuEhpkPaTXvPGK/pivhO2HeBoad1YgXpyU0GIXlt1Mko8szZteWa+cALPxCJ6H+marIJVHjhobXLVQtD+OhSWlHomPln61N5488WUmVlPxA1bMoeRaGtnH5nwH2Cba3h8xA0NOyEEWq8mH3ctj1PhY6sPgLO+S1M0rLXWfBHshDk2pXiOHDdseGvXTKth75hj+685dOVhRkogDlcqXMHmNQuvkBr7xd9uTw==
ANSWER: In a positive correlation, two factors increase or decrease together. In a negative correlation, one item increases as the other decreases. A correlation coefficient can describe the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables, from +1.00 (a perfect positive correlation) through zero (no correlation at all) to -1.00 (a perfect negative correlation). A correlation can indicate the possibility of a cause-effect relationship, but it does not prove the direction of the influence, or whether an underlying third factor may explain the correlation.

Question

M1R7W8KzdtrbQwYrxo1ESRztiCONiKSoGFJgZ5lhVNoCfT3pv39NsMlgcx7Mkx2HM3HkOUbCML2Zfeu29m8fJvs4pIRY1O6vSXyjpnjbR8e9uRdHXhd3hqSuStBFWI06lBBMHNdXDp4XmKgVFYsIIs/DbbeIsRTup+AYW42ZJp2Yz9xmrifbtz84hkx5mSr7Di5EWkTaTR0dS8dyhDb05nbZVIcKC1al+jhbRw==
ANSWER: To discover cause-effect relationships, psychologists conduct experiments, manipulating one or more factors of interest and controlling other factors. Using random assignment, they can minimize confounding variables, such as preexisting differences between the experimental group (exposed to the treatment) and the control group (given a placebo or different version of the treatment). The independent variable is the factor the experimenter manipulates to study its effect; the dependent variable is the factor the experimenter measures to discover any changes occurring in response to the manipulations. Studies may use a double-blind procedure to avoid the placebo effect. Psychological scientists must design studies and choose research methods that will best provide meaningful results. (The Immersive Learning: How Would You Know? activities in LaunchPad show how testable questions are developed and studied.)

Question

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ANSWER: Researchers intentionally create a controlled, artificial environment in the laboratory in order to test general theoretical principles. These general principles help explain everyday behaviors.

Question

iSLyoZ0buxqUnjMMNEkEBcI7JV/Yz6DfdNJGtPzXU4HlQsUloh/BO6lZjxqA5Op+dYq7UgdicCbSbTA50fGfLpRTkAX8cEPt3Q5AdrYgLRec8uvFdbzEVH5We85x4D0jqNrV2f5swlZ0MPjrdHvzLL0u4pS2WhHS0poinUWfCdGaqjT6MeAYmaCveYdgdzGDfrKjcY6YYxIffRVJgd0knrfatKpkJEnO3L3UhhJhkcuy22Q+SmrJ2DvUD2XwEnPHb4RK29XoUx0QLdl7nQ70zd2kTqaXU7zS3iOUfhwyvmqZF000
ANSWER: Some psychologists are primarily interested in animal behavior; others want to better understand the physiological and psychological processes shared by humans and other species. Government agencies have established standards for animal care and housing. Professional associations and funding agencies also establish guidelines for protecting animals' well-being. The APA ethics code outlines standards for safeguarding human participants' well-being, including obtaining their informed consent and debriefing them later. Psychologists' values influence their choice of research topics, their theories and observations, their labels for behavior, and their professional advice. Applications of psychology's principles have been used mainly in the service of humanity.

Question

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ANSWER: The testing effect shows that learning and memory are enhanced by actively retrieving, rather than simply rereading, previously studied material. The SQ3R study method—survey, question, read, retrieve, and review—applies principles derived from memory research. Four additional tips are (1) distribute your study time; (2) learn to think critically; (3) process class information actively; and (4) overlearn.

Terms and Concepts to Remember

Test yourself on these terms.

Question

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

Experience the Testing Effect

33

Test yourself repeatedly throughout your studies. This will not only help you figure out what you know and don’t know; the testing itself will help you learn and remember the information more effectively thanks to the testing effect.

Question 1.9

1. TUOzdXeyQZS8frWa1DanU0SYFNI= refers to our tendency to perceive events as obvious or inevitable after the fact.

Question 1.10

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

Question 1.11

ABajQKpE6GDLkbZN6AXiUtOCvV5vlF+qa/K6nY1SsjdA8WomW7P5TtTGVjVv/Gt2gzjVTLXG6pvP5Rvx0xIDdNrMI5nVkNH3cWBgr+Kx0EckU3tli8XwMc3uv55Ybd31O0qA14hwK9Oy6aCuz4FNz79nYtm1IGryzSA/ZRTmhbdKO8544FoWxXMj7IINb48DY/zVuUw4T1aEaGHc46fImBvSLfBLX6pZ
ANSWER: Critical thinking examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions. In evaluating a claim in the media, look for any signs of empirical evidence, preferably from several studies. Ask the following questions in your analysis: Are claims based on scientific findings? Have several studies replicated the findings and confirmed them? Are any experts cited? If so, research their background. Are they affiliated with a credible university, college, or institution? Have they conducted or written about scientific research?

Question 1.12

4. Theory-based predictions are called Xt6eD+++j0GmFImFINyAVQ== .

Question 1.13

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Question 1.14

6. You wish to survey a group of people who truly represent the country's adult population. The best way to ensure this is to question a 26WC62w0XIy27svEnxDbs4qKspg= sample of the population, in which each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Question 1.15

7. A study finds that the more childbirth training classes women attend, the less pain medication they require during childbirth. This finding can be stated as a PsZo0R5Y8yrofAbHg+qqcQ== (positive/negative) correlation.

Question 1.16

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Question 1.17

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ANSWER: (a) Alcohol use is associated with violence. (One interpretation: Drinking triggers or unleashes aggressive behavior.) Perhaps anger triggers drinking, or perhaps the same genes or child-raising practices are predisposing both drinking and aggression. (Here researchers have learned that drinking does indeed trigger aggressive behavior.)

(b) Educated people live longer, on average, than less-educated people. (One interpretation: Education lengthens life and enhances health.) Perhaps richer people can afford more education and better health care. (Research supports this conclusion.)

(c) Teens engaged in team sports are less likely to use drugs, smoke, have sex, carry weapons, and eat junk food than are teens who do not engage in team sports. (One interpretation: Team sports encourage healthy living.) Perhaps some third factor explains this correlation — teens who use drugs, smoke, have sex, carry weapons, and eat junk food may be "loners" who do not enjoy playing on any team.

(d) Adolescents who frequently see smoking in movies are more likely to smoke. (One interpretation: Movie stars' behavior influences impressionable teens.) Perhaps adolescents who smoke and attend movies frequently have less parental supervision and more access to spending money than other adolescents.

Question 1.18

10. To explain behaviors and clarify cause and effect, psychologists use cQS+iRbatow7PC893D+Bhw== .

Question 1.19

11. To test the effect of a new drug on depression, we randomly assign people to control and experimental groups. Those in the control group take a pill that contains no medication. This is a 3AQn4csJ9riHGl+n .

Question 1.20

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Question 1.21

13. A researcher wants to determine whether noise level affects workers' blood pressure. In one group, she varies the level of noise in the environment and records participants' blood pressure. In this experiment, the level of noise is the OSUslen6MXCTFeOVyfwrHnS+HP7gIRGU4k3wIQ== .

Question 1.22

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Question 1.23

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