REVIEW Research Strategies: How Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions

Learning Objectives

Test Yourself by taking a moment to answer each of these Learning Objective Questions (repeated here from within the module). Research suggests that trying to answer these questions on your own will improve your long-term memory of the concepts (McDaniel et al., 2009).

Question

2-1 How does our everyday thinking sometimes lead us to a wrong conclusion?
ANSWER: Our everyday thinking can be perilous because of three phenomena: hindsight bias, overconfidence, and a tendency to perceive order in random events. Hindsight bias (also called the "I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon") is the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that we would have foreseen it. Overconfidence in our judgments results partly from our bias to seek information that confirms them. These tendencies, plus our eagerness to perceive patterns in random events, lead us to overestimate our intuition. Although limited by the testable questions it can address, scientific inquiry can help us overcome our intuition's biases and shortcomings.

Question

2-2 How do theories advance psychological science?
ANSWER: Psychological theories are explanations that apply an integrated set of principles to organize observations and generate hypotheses—predictions that can be used to check the theory or produce practical applications of it. By testing their hypotheses, researchers can confirm, reject, or revise their theories. To enable other researchers to replicate the studies, researchers report them using precise operational definitions of their procedures and concepts. If others achieve similar results, confidence in the conclusion will be greater.

Question

2-3 How do psychologists use case studies, naturalistic observations, and surveys to observe and describe behavior, and why is random sampling important?
ANSWER: Descriptive methods, which include case studies, naturalistic observations, and surveys, show us what can happen, and they may offer ideas for further study. The best basis for generalizing about a population is a representative sample; in a random sample, every person in the entire population being studied has an equal chance of participating. Descriptive methods cannot show cause and effect because researchers cannot control variables.

Question

2-4 What are positive and negative correlations, and why do they enable prediction but not cause-effect explanation?
ANSWER: In a positive correlation, two factors increase or decrease together. In a negative correlation, one item increases as the other decreases. A correlation coefficient can describe the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables, from +1.00 (a perfect positive correlation) through zero (no correlation at all) to -1.00 (a perfect negative correlation). A correlation can indicate the possibility of a cause-effect relationship, but it does not prove the direction of the influence, or whether an underlying third factor may explain the correlation.

Question

2-5 What are the characteristics of experimentation that make it possible to isolate cause and effect?
ANSWER: To discover cause-effect relationships, psychologists conduct experiments, manipulating one or more factors of interest and controlling other factors. Using random assignment, they can minimize confounding variables, such as preexisting differences between the experimental group (exposed to the treatment) and the control group (given a placebo or different version of the treatment). The independent variable is the factor the experimenter manipulates to study its effect; the dependent variable is the factor the experimenter measures to discover any changes occurring in response to the manipulations. Studies may use a double-blind procedure to avoid the placebo effect. Psychological scientists must design studies and choose research methods that will best provide meaningful results. (The Immersive Learning: How Would You Know? activities in LaunchPad show how testable questions are developed and studied.)

Question

2-6 Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life?
ANSWER: Researchers intentionally create a controlled, artificial environment in the laboratory in order to test general theoretical principles. These general principles help explain everyday behaviors.

Question

2-7 Why do psychologists study animals, and what ethical guidelines safeguard human and animal research participants? How do human values influence psychology?
ANSWER: Some psychologists are primarily interested in animal behavior; others want to better understand the physiological and psychological processes shared by humans and other species. Government agencies have established standards for animal care and housing. Professional associations and funding agencies also establish guidelines for protecting animals' well-being. The APA ethics code outlines standards for safeguarding human participants' well-being, including obtaining their informed consent and debriefing them later. Psychologists' values influence their choice of research topics, their theories and observations, their labels for behavior, and their professional advice. Applications of psychology's principles have been used mainly in the service of humanity.

Question

2-8 How can psychological principles help you learn and remember?
ANSWER: The testing effect shows that learning and memory are enhanced by actively retrieving, rather than simply rereading, previously studied material. The SQ3R study method—survey, question, read, retrieve, and review—applies principles derived from memory research. Four additional tips are (1) distribute your study time; (2) learn to think critically; (3) process class information actively; and (4) overlearn.

Terms and Concepts to Remember

Test yourself on these terms.

Question

intuition (p. 15)
hindsight bias (p. 15)
theory (p. 17)
hypothesis (p. 17)
operational definition (p. 17)
replication (p. 17)
case study (p. 19)
naturalistic observation (p. 19)
survey (p. 21)
population (p. 21)
random sample (p. 21)
correlation (p. 22)
correlation coefficient (p. 22)
experiment (p. 23)
experimental group (p. 23)
control group (p. 23)
random assignment (p. 24)
double-blind procedure (p. 24)
placebo [pluh-SEE-bo] effect (p. 24)
independent variable (p. 25)
confounding variable (p. 25)
dependent variable (p. 25)
informed consent (p. 29)
debriefing (p. 29)
testing effect (p. 30)
SQ3R (p. 30)
a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.
a factor other than the factor being studied that might produce an effect.
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.)
in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.
in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated.
in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.
an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning.
a testable prediction, often implied by a theory.
giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.
assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups.
in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.
repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced.
the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.
[Latin for "I shall please"] experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.
a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.
a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.
a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.
an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.
an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.
a study method incorporating five steps: Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review.
a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.
a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1.00 to +1.00).
a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.
all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. (Note: Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country's whole population.)

Experience the Testing Effect

Page 33

Test yourself repeatedly throughout your studies. This will not only help you figure out what you know and don’t know; the testing itself will help you learn and remember the information more effectively thanks to the testing effect.

Question 1.9

1. refers to our tendency to perceive events as obvious or inevitable after the fact.

Question 1.10

2. As scientists, psychologists

A.
B.
C.
D.

Question 1.11

3. How can critical thinking help you evaluate claims in the media, even if you're not a scientific expert on the issue?
ANSWER: Critical thinking examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions. In evaluating a claim in the media, look for any signs of empirical evidence, preferably from several studies. Ask the following questions in your analysis: Are claims based on scientific findings? Have several studies replicated the findings and confirmed them? Are any experts cited? If so, research their background. Are they affiliated with a credible university, college, or institution? Have they conducted or written about scientific research?

Question 1.12

4. Theory-based predictions are called .

Question 1.13

5. Which of the following is NOT one of the descriptive methods psychologists use to observe and describe behavior?

A.
B.
C.
D.

Question 1.14

6. You wish to survey a group of people who truly represent the country's adult population. The best way to ensure this is to question a sample of the population, in which each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Question 1.15

7. A study finds that the more childbirth training classes women attend, the less pain medication they require during childbirth. This finding can be stated as a (positive/negative) correlation.

Question 1.16

8. Knowing that two events are correlated provides

A.
B.
C.
D.

Question 1.17

9. Here are some recently reported correlations, with interpretations drawn by journalists. Knowing just these correlations, can you come up with other possible explanations for each of these?

A. Alcohol use is associated with violence. (One interpretation: Drinking triggers or unleashes aggressive behavior.)

B. Educated people live longer, on average, than less-educated people. (One interpretation: Education lengthens life and enhances health.)

C. Teens engaged in team sports are less likely to use drugs, smoke, have sex, carry weapons, and eat junk food than are teens who do not engage in team sports. (One interpretation: Team sports encourage healthy living.)

D. Adolescents who frequently see smoking in movies are more likely to smoke. (One interpretation: Movie stars' behavior influences impressionable teens.)
ANSWER: (a) Alcohol use is associated with violence. (One interpretation: Drinking triggers or unleashes aggressive behavior.) Perhaps anger triggers drinking, or perhaps the same genes or child-raising practices are predisposing both drinking and aggression. (Here researchers have learned that drinking does indeed trigger aggressive behavior.)

(b) Educated people live longer, on average, than less-educated people. (One interpretation: Education lengthens life and enhances health.) Perhaps richer people can afford more education and better health care. (Research supports this conclusion.)

(c) Teens engaged in team sports are less likely to use drugs, smoke, have sex, carry weapons, and eat junk food than are teens who do not engage in team sports. (One interpretation: Team sports encourage healthy living.) Perhaps some third factor explains this correlation — teens who use drugs, smoke, have sex, carry weapons, and eat junk food may be "loners" who do not enjoy playing on any team.

(d) Adolescents who frequently see smoking in movies are more likely to smoke. (One interpretation: Movie stars' behavior influences impressionable teens.) Perhaps adolescents who smoke and attend movies frequently have less parental supervision and more access to spending money than other adolescents.

Question 1.18

10. To explain behaviors and clarify cause and effect, psychologists use .

Question 1.19

11. To test the effect of a new drug on depression, we randomly assign people to control and experimental groups. Those in the control group take a pill that contains no medication. This is a .

Question 1.20

12. In a double-blind procedure,

A.
B.
C.
D.

Question 1.21

13. A researcher wants to determine whether noise level affects workers' blood pressure. In one group, she varies the level of noise in the environment and records participants' blood pressure. In this experiment, the level of noise is the .

Question 1.22

14. The laboratory environment is designed to

A.
B.
C.
D.

Question 1.23

15. In defending their experimental research with animals, psychologists have noted that

A.
B.
C.
D.

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