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REVIEW Studying and Encoding Memories

Learning Objectives

Test Yourself by taking a moment to answer each of these Learning Objective Questions (repeated here from within the module). Research suggests that trying to answer these questions on your own will improve your long-term memory of the concepts (McDaniel et al., 2009).

Question

22-1 What is memory, and how is it measured?
ANSWER: Memory is learning that has persisted over time, through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information. Evidence of memory may be recalling information, recognizing it, or relearning it more easily on a later attempt.

Question

22-2 How do psychologists describe the human memory system?
ANSWER: Psychologists use memory models to think and communicate about memory. Information-processing models involve three processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval. Our agile brain processes many things simultaneously by means of parallel processing. The connectionism information-processing model focuses on this multitrack processing, viewing memories as products of interconnected neural networks. The three processing stages in the Atkinson-Shiffrin model are sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. This model has since been updated to include two important concepts: (1) working memory, to stress the active processing occurring in the second memory stage; and (2) automatic processing, to address the processing of information outside of conscious awareness.

Question

22-3 How do explicit and implicit memories differ?
ANSWER: The human brain processes information on dual tracks, consciously and unconsciously. Explicit (declarative) memories—our conscious memories of facts and experiences—form through effortful processing, which requires conscious effort and attention. Implicit (nondeclarative) memories—of skills and classically conditioned associations—happen without our awareness, through automatic processing.

Question

22-4 What information do we process automatically?
ANSWER: In addition to skills and classically conditioned associations, we automatically process incidental information about space, time, and frequency.

Question

22-5 How does sensory memory work?
ANSWER: Sensory memory feeds some information into working memory for active processing there. An iconic memory is a very brief (a few tenths of a second) sensory memory of visual stimuli; an echoic memory is a three- or four-second sensory memory of auditory stimuli.

Question

22-6 What is our short-term memory capacity?
ANSWER: Short-term memory capacity is about seven items, plus or minus two, but this information disappears from memory quickly without rehearsal. Our working memory capacity for active processing varies, depending on age, intelligence level, and other factors.

Question

22-7 What are some effortful processing strategies that can help us remember new information?
ANSWER: Effective effortful processing strategies include chunking, mnemonics, hierarchies, and distributed practice sessions. The testing effect is enhanced memory after consciously retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information.

Question

22-8 What are the levels of processing, and how do they affect encoding?
ANSWER: Depth of processing affects long-term retention. In shallow processing, we encode words based on their structure or appearance. Retention is best when we use deep processing, encoding words based on their meaning. We also more easily remember material that is personally meaningful—the self-reference effect.

Terms and Concepts to Remember

Test yourself on these terms.

Question

memory (p. 282)
recall (p. 283)
recognition (p. 283)
relearning (p. 283)
encoding (p. 284)
storage (p. 284)
retrieval (p. 284)
parallel processing (p. 284)
sensory memory (p. 284)
short-term memory (p. 284)
long-term memory (p. 284)
working memory (p. 285)
explicit memory (p. 285)
effortful processing (p. 285)
automatic processing (p. 285)
implicit memory (p. 285)
iconic memory (p. 286)
echoic memory (p. 286)
chunking (p. 287)
mnemonics [nih-MON-iks] (p. 288)
spacing effect (p. 289)
testing effect (p. 289)
shallow processing (p. 289)
deep processing (p. 289)
encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words.
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.
retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection. (Also called nondeclarative memory.)
a newer understanding of short-term memory that adds conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.
the process of retaining encoded information over time.
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.
unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings.
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.
a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.
a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.
a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again.
activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while calling, before the information is stored or forgotten.
the process of getting information out of memory storage.
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare." (Also called declarative memory.)
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions.
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.
encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention.
the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.
the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.

Experience the Testing Effect

Test yourself repeatedly throughout your studies. This will not only help you figure out what you know and don’t know; the testing itself will help you learn and remember the information more effectively thanks to the testing effect.

Question 8.1

1. A psychologist who asks you to write down as many objects as you can remember having seen a few minutes earlier is testing your .

Question 8.2

2. The psychological terms for taking in information, retaining it, and later getting it back out are , , and .

Question 8.3

3. The concept of working memory

A.
B.
C.
D.

Question 8.4

4. Sensory memory may be visual ( memory) or auditory ( memory).

Question 8.5

5. Our short-term memory for new information is limited to about items.

Question 8.6

6. Memory aids that use visual imagery (such as peg words) or other organizational devices (such as acronyms) are called .

Use image to create your personalized study plan, which will direct you to the resources that will help you most in image .

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