pocketspeak4e

Glossary

abstract language Language that is general or nonspecific.

active listening Listening that is focused and purposeful.

ad hominem fallacy A logical fallacy that targets the person instead of the issue at hand in an attempt to discredit an opponent’s argument. See also logical fallacy.

after-dinner speech A speech that is likely to occur before, after, or during a formal dinner; a breakfast or lunch seminar; or other type of business, professional, or civic meeting.

agenda A document identifying the items to be accomplished during a meeting.

agora In ancient Greece, a public square or marketplace. See also forum and public forum.

alliteration The repetition of the same sounds, usually initial consonants, in two or more neighboring words or syllables.

almanac A reference work that contains facts and statistics in many categories or on a given topic, including those that are related to historical, social, political, and religious subjects.

analogy An extended metaphor or simile that compares an unfamiliar concept or process with a more familiar one in order to help the listener understand the one that is unfamiliar. See also imagery.

anaphora A rhetorical device in which the speaker repeats a word or phrase at the beginning of successive phrases, clauses, or sentences.

anecdote A brief story of an interesting, humorous, or real-life incident that links back to the speaker’s theme.

anti-group roles Disruptive roles such as “floor hogger” and “blocker” that detract from a group’s roles and so should be avoided.

antithesis A rhetorical device in which two ideas are set off in balanced (parallel) opposition to each other.

anxiety stop-time A technique for dealing with pre-performance anxiety by allowing anxiety to present itself for a few minutes and then declaring time for confidence to step in to help complete practicing a speech.

appeal to tradition A logical fallacy suggesting that something is true because traditionally it has been true. See also logical fallacy.

architecture design review A type of oral presentation that enables the audience to visualize an architectural design.

argument A stated position, with support, for or against an idea or issue; contains the core elements of claim, evidence, and warrants.

articulation The clarity or forcefulness with which sounds are made, regardless of whether they are pronounced correctly.

asynchronous communication Communication in which interaction between speaker and receiver does not occur simultaneously. See also recorded presentation.

atlas A collection of maps, text, and accompanying charts and tables.

attitudes Our general evaluations of people, ideas, objects, or events.

audience analysis The process of gathering and analyzing demographic and psychological information about audience members.

audience-centered Focused on the needs, attitudes, and values of the audience.

average Information calculated on the basis of typical characteristics.

bandwagoning A logical fallacy that uses (unsubstantiated) general opinion as its (false) basis. See also logical fallacy.

begging the question A logical fallacy in which what is stated cannot help but be true, even though no evidence has been presented. See also logical fallacy.

beliefs The ways in which people perceive reality or determine the very existence or validity of something.

biased language Any language that relies on unfounded assumptions, negative descriptions, or stereotypes of a given group’s age, class, gender, disability, geographic, ethnic, racial, or religious characteristics.

blog Short for “Weblog,” an online personal journal.

body (of speech) The part of the speech in which the speaker develops the main points intended to fulfill the speech’s purpose.

body language The bodily activity of the speaker and the meaning the audience assigns to this activity.

brainstorming A problem-solving technique that involves the spontaneous generation of ideas; includes making lists, using word association, and mapping topics.

brief example A single illustration of an idea, item, or event being described.

call to action A challenge to audience members to act in response to a speech; placed at the conclusion of a persuasive speech.

canned speech A speech used repeatedly and without sufficient adaptation to the rhetorical speech situation.

canons of rhetoric A classical approach to speechmaking in which the speaker divides the process into five parts: invention, arrangement, style, memory, and delivery.

captive audience An audience required to attend.

case conference An oral report prepared by health care professionals evaluating a patient’s condition and outlining a treatment plan.

case study A detailed illustration of a real or hypothetical business situation.

causal (cause-effect) pattern of arrangement A pattern of organizing speech points in order of causes and then in order of effects, or vice versa.

causal reasoning Offering a cause-and-effect relationship as proof of a claim.

central processing A mode of processing a persuasive message that involves thinking critically about the contents of the message and the strength and quality of the speaker’s arguments.

channel The medium through which the speaker sends a message, such as sound waves, air waves, and so forth.

chart A method of representing data and their relationship to other data in a meaningful form. Several different types of charts are helpful for speakers: flow charts, organization charts, and tabular charts (tables).

cherry-picking Selectively presenting only those facts and statistics that buttress one’s point of view while ignoring competing data.

chronological pattern of arrangement A pattern of organizing speech points in a natural sequential order; used when describing a series of events in time or when the topic develops in line with a set pattern of actions or tasks.

claim The declaration of a state of affairs in which a speaker attempts to prove something by providing evidence and reasoning.

claim of fact An argument that focuses on whether something is or is not true or whether something will or will not happen.

claim of policy An argument that recommends that a specific course of action be taken, or approved, by an audience.

claim of value An argument that addresses issues of judgment.

classroom discussion presentation A type of oral presentation in which the speaker presents a brief overview of the topic under discussion and introduces a series of questions to guide students through the topic.

cliché An overused phrase such as “burning the midnight oil” or “works like a dog.”

clinical case study A presentation that provides medical personnel with a detailed analysis of a person or group with a particular disease or condition and reviews plans for treatment.

closed-ended question A question designed to elicit a small range of specific answers supplied by the interviewer.

co-culture A community of people whose perceptions and beliefs differ significantly from those of other groups within the larger culture.

code-switching The selective use of dialect within a speech.

colleagues within the field audience An audience of persons who share the speaker’s knowledge of the general field under question but who may not be familiar with the specific topic under discussion.

colloquial expression An informal expression characterized by regional variations of speech. See also idiom.

common knowledge Information that is likely to be known by many people and is therefore in the public domain; the source of such information need not be cited in a speech.

comparative advantage pattern of arrangement A pattern of organizing speech points so that the speaker’s viewpoint or proposal is shown to be superior to one or more alternative viewpoints or proposals.

conclusion (of speech) The part of the speech in which the speaker reiterates the speech theme, summarizes main points, and leaves the audience with something about which to think or act.

concrete language Nouns and verbs that convey specific (as opposed to abstract) meaning.

connotative meaning The individual associations that different people bring to bear on a word.

context Anything that influences the speaker, the audience, or the occasion, and affects the message of the speech.

conversation stoppers Speech that discredits, demeans, or belittles.

coordinate points Ideas that are given the same weight in an outline and are aligned with one another; thus Main Point II is coordinate with Main Point I.

coordination and subordination The logical placement of ideas in an outline relative to their importance to one another. Ideas that are coordinate are given equal weight. An idea that is subordinate to another is given relatively less weight.

Creative Commons An organization that allows creators of works to decide how they want other people to use their copyrighted works.

crisis-response presentation A type of oral presentation in which the speaker seeks to reassure an organization’s various audiences (“publics”) and restore its credibility in the face of potentially reputation-damaging situations.

decoding The process of interpreting a message.

deductive reasoning Reasoning from a general condition to a specific instance. See inductive reasoning.

deep Web The large portion of the Web that general search engines cannot access because the information is licensed and/or fee-based.

defamatory speech Speech that potentially harms an individual’s reputation at work or in the community and is thus subject to legal action. See also reckless disregard for the truth.

defensive listening A poor listening behavior in which the listener reacts defensively to a speaker’s message.

definition by example Defining something by providing an example of it.

definition by negation Defining something by explaining what it is not.

definition by synonym Defining something by comparing it with another term that has an equivalent meaning. For example: “A friend is a comrade, or a buddy.”

definition by word origin (etymology) Defining something by providing an account of a word’s history.

delivery The vocal and nonverbal behavior that a speaker uses in a public speech; one of the five canons of rhetoric.

delivery cues Brief reminder notes or prompts placed in the speaking outline that can refer to transitions, timing, speaking rate and volume, presentation aids, quotations, statistics, and difficult-to-pronounce or remember names or words.

demographics Statistical characteristics of a given population. Characteristics typically considered in the analysis of audience members include age, gender, ethnic or cultural background, socioeconomic status (including income, occupation, and education), and religious and political affiliation.

denotative meaning The literal or dictionary definition of a word.

devil’s advocacy Arguing for the sake of raising issues or concerns about the idea under discussion.

diagram A schematic drawing that explains how something works or how it is constructed or operated; useful in simplifying and clarifying complicated procedures, explanations, and operations.

dialect A distinctive way of speaking associated with a particular region or social group.

dialectical inquiry Devil’s advocacy that goes a step further by proposing a countersolution to an idea.

dialogic communication Sharing ideas through dialogue.

dignity The feeling that one is worthy, honored, or respected as a person.

direct quotation Statement made verbatim—word for word—by someone else. Direct quotations should always be acknowledged in a speech.

disinformation The deliberate falsification of information.

DLP (digital light processing) projector A projector designed for computer images that is equipped with an illumination, or light source, in its own case, thereby eliminating the need for an overhead projector.

domain The suffix at the end of a Web address that describes the nature of the Web site: business/commercial (.com), educational (.edu), government (.gov), military (.mil), network (.net), or nonprofit organization (.org).

dyadic communication Communication between two people, as in a conversation.

either-or fallacy A logical fallacy stated in terms of two alternatives only, even though there are additional alternatives.

encoding The process of organizing a message, choosing words and sentence structure, and verbalizing the message.

encyclopedia A reference work that summarizes knowledge found in original form elsewhere and provides an overview of subjects.

engineering design review An oral presentation that provides information on the results of an engineering design project.

ethos The Greek word for “character.” According to the ancient Greek rhetorician Aristotle, audiences listen to and trust speakers if they exhibit competence (as demonstrated by the speaker’s grasp of the subject matter) and good moral character.

eulogy A speech whose purpose is to celebrate and commemorate the life of someone while consoling those who are left behind; typically delivered by close friends and family members.

evidence Supporting material that provides grounds for belief.

evidence-based practice (EBP) presentation A presentation that reviews the scientific literature on a clinical problem, critically evaluates the findings, and suggests best practices for standards of care.

example (as form of support) An illustration whose purpose is to aid understanding by making ideas, items, or events more concrete and by clarifying and amplifying meaning.

expert or insider audience An audience of persons with an intimate knowledge of the topic, issue, product, or idea being discussed.

expert testimony Any findings, eyewitness accounts, or opinions by professionals who are trained to evaluate or report on a given topic; a form of supporting material.

explanatory research presentation A type of oral presentation focusing on studies that attempt to analyze and explain a phenomenon; frequently delivered in social scientific fields.

extended example Multifaceted illustration of the idea, item, or event being described, thereby getting the point across and reiterating it effectively.

face-to-face (FtF) speaking A presentation delivered in the physical presence of others; an “offline” presentation.

fact book See almanac.

facts Documented occurrences, including actual events, dates, times, places, and people involved.

fairness An ethical ground rule; making a genuine effort to see all sides of an issue; being open-minded.

fair use doctrine Legal guidelines permitting the limited use of copyrighted works without permission for the purposes of scholarship, criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching, and research.

faulty analogy An inaccurate or misleading comparison suggesting that because two things are similar in some ways, they are necessarily similar in others.

feedback Audience response to a message, which can be conveyed both verbally and nonverbally through gestures. Feedback from the audience often indicates whether a speaker’s message has been understood.

feedback loop The ongoing adjustment in response between speaker and listeners.

field study presentation A type of oral presentation typically delivered in the context of science-related disciplines in which the speaker provides (1) an overview of the field research, (2) the methods used in the research, (3) an analysis of the results of the research, and (4) a time line indicating how the research results will be used going forward.

figures of speech Expressions, such as metaphors, similes, analogies, and hyperbole, in which words are used in a nonliteral fashion.

First Amendment The amendment to the U.S. Constitution that guarantees freedom of speech. (“Congress shall make no law abridging the freedom of speech.”)

fixed-alternative question A closed-ended question that contains a limited choice of answers, such as “Yes,” “No,” or “Sometimes.”

flip chart A large (27–34 inch) pad of paper on which a speaker can illustrate speech points.

flowchart A diagram that shows step-by-step the progression through a procedure, relationship, or process.

font A set of type of one size and face.

forum In ancient Rome, a public space in which people gathered to deliberate about the issues of the day. See also agora and public forum.

frequency A count of the number of times something occurs.

full-sentence transition A signal to listeners, in the form of a declarative sentence, that the speaker is turning to another topic.

gender Social or psychological sense of self as male or female.

general speech purpose A statement of the broad speech purpose that answers the question, “Why am I speaking on this topic for this particular audience and occasion?” Usually the general speech purpose is to inform, to persuade, or to celebrate or commemorate a special occasion. See also specific speech purpose.

graph A graphical representation of numerical data. Graphs neatly illustrate relationships among components or units and demonstrate trends. Four major types of graphs are line graphs, bar graphs, pie graphs, and pictograms.

group activity presentation An oral presentation that introduces students to an activity and provides them with clear directions for its completion.

groupthink The tendency of a group to accept information and ideas without subjecting them to critical analysis.

handout Printed material that conveys information that is either impractical to give to the audience in another manner or intended to be kept by audience members after a presentation.

hasty generalization A logical fallacy in which an isolated instance is used to make an unwarranted general conclusion. See also logical fallacy.

hate speech Any offensive communication—verbal or nonverbal—directed against people’s race, ethnicity, religion, gender, disability, or other characteristics. Racist, sexist, or ageist slurs, gay bashing, and cross burnings are all forms of hate speech.

hierarchy of needs A classic model of human action developed by Abraham Maslow built on the principle that people are motivated to act on the basis of their needs.

hypothetical example An illustration of something that could happen in the future if certain events were to occur.

identification A feeling of commonality with another. Effective speakers attempt to foster a sense of identification between themselves and audience members.

idiom Language specific to a certain region or group of people. See also colloquial expression.

imagery Colorful and concrete words that appeal to the senses. See also analogy, metaphor, and simile.

indentation In an outline, the plotting of speech points to indicate their weight relative to one another; subordinate points are placed underneath and to the right of higher-order points.

individual debate format A debate in which one person takes a side against another.

inductive reasoning Reasoning from specific instances to a general condition. See deductive reasoning.

information Data set in a context for relevance.

informative speaking Speech providing new information, new insights, or new ways of thinking about a topic. The general purpose of informative speaking is to increase the audience’s understanding and awareness of a topic.

integrity The quality of being incorruptible; the unwillingness to compromise for the sake of personal expediency.

internal preview An extended transition that alerts audience members to ensuing speech content.

internal summary An extended transition that draws together important ideas before proceeding to another speech point.

intonation The rising and falling of voice pitch across phrases and sentences.

introduction (of speech) The first part of a speech, in which the speaker establishes the speech purpose and its relevance to the audience and previews the topic and the main points.

invective Abusive speech.

jargon Specialized terminology developed within a given endeavor or field of study.

key-word outline The briefest form of outline; uses the smallest possible units of understanding associated with a specific point to outline the main and supporting points.

keywords Words and phrases that describe the main concepts of topics. Internet search engines index information by keywords tagged within documents.

lavaliere microphone A microphone that attaches to a lapel or a collar.

lay audience An audience of persons lacking specialized knowledge of the general field related to the speaker’s topic and of the topic itself.

lay testimony Firsthand findings, accounts, or opinions from nonexperts such as eyewitnesses.

lazy speech A poor speech habit in which the speaker fails to properly articulate words.

LCD (liquid crystal display) panel A device connected to a computer used to project slides stored in the computer.

learning styles Preferred ways of processing information; one learning theory model suggests visual, aural, read/write, and kinesthetic modes of learning.

lecture An informational speech to an audience of student learners.

library portal An entry point to a large collection of research and reference information that has been selected and reviewed by librarians.

listening The conscious act of receiving, comprehending, interpreting, and responding to messages.

listening distraction Anything that competes for a listener’s attention. The source of the distraction may be internal or external.

logical fallacy A statement that is based on an invalid or deceptive line of reasoning. See also ad hominem argument, appeal to tradition, bandwagoning, begging the question, either-or fallacy, hasty generalization, non sequitur, red herring fallacy, and slippery slope.

logos The Greek rhetorician Aristotle used this term to refer to persuasive appeals to reason and logic.

main points Statements that express the key ideas and major themes of a speech. Their function is to make claims in support of the thesis statement.

maintenance roles In a small group, roles that help facilitate effective group interaction, such as the “harmonizer” and the “gatekeeper.” See task roles.

malapropism The inadvertent use of a word or phrase in place of one that sounds like it.

mass communication Communication that occurs between a speaker and a large audience of unknown people. The receivers of the message are not present with the speaker or are part of such an immense crowd that there can be little or no interaction between speaker and listener. Television, radio news broadcasts, and mass rallies are examples of mass communication.

mean The sum of the scores divided by the number of scores; the arithmetic (or computed) average.

median A type of average that represents the center-most score in a distribution; the point above and below which 50 percent of the scores fall.

message The content of the communication process—thoughts and ideas put into meaningful expressions. A message can be expressed both verbally (through the sentences and points of a speech) and nonverbally (through eye contact and gestures).

metaphor A figure of speech used to make implicit comparisons without the use of “like” or “as” (e.g., “Love is a rose”). See also imagery.

methods/procedure presentation An oral presentation describing and sometimes demonstrating an experimental or mathematical process, including the conditions under which it can be applied; frequently delivered in scientific and mathematics related fields.

mind mapping See topic mapping.

misinformation Information that is false.

mixed audience An audience composed of a combination of persons—some with expert knowledge of the field and topic and others with no specialized knowledge.

mixed metaphor A comparison that juxtaposes two unlike, often clichéd, expressions, such as “He went off the deep end like a bull in a china shop.”

mode A type of average that represents the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.

model A three-dimensional, scale-size representation of an object such as a building.

moderator A person who presides over a discussion or meeting.

motivated sequence pattern of arrangement An organizational pattern for a persuasive speech based on a five-step process developed by Alan Monroe that begins with arousing attention and ends with calling for action.

multimedia A single production that combines several media (stills, sound, video, text, and data).

mumbling Slurring words together at low volume and pitch so they are barely audible.

narrative A story based on personal experiences or imaginary incidents. See also story.

narrative organizational pattern A pattern of organizing speech points so that the speech unfolds as a story, with characters, plot, and setting. In practice, this pattern often is combined with other organizational patterns.

noise Anything that interferes with the communication process between a speaker and an audience so that the message cannot be understood; source may be external (in the environment) or internal (psychological factors).

non sequitur (“does not follow”) A logical fallacy in which the conclusion is not connected to the reasoning. See also logical fallacy.

nonverbal communication The meaning of a speaker’s words conveyed by voice, body language, and appearance.

nonverbal immediacy Acts that create the perception of psychological closeness between the speaker and audience members.

one-sided message In persuasive speaking, a message that does not mention opposing claims. See two-sided message.

online presentation A presentation delivered over any distance via the Internet; can include both real-time and recorded presentations.

open-ended question A survey or interview question designed to allow respondents to elaborate as much as they want.

operational definition Defining something by describing what it does. For example: A computer is something that processes information.

oral citation A means of crediting the source of speech material derived from other people’s works or ideas.

oral scientific presentation A type of oral presentation following the model used in scientific investigations, including an introduction, description of methods, results, and conclusion; commonly found in the disciplines of science and mathematics. See also research overview presentation.

oratory In classical terms, the art of public speaking.

overhead transparency An image on a transparent background that can be viewed by projection.

paid inclusion The practice of paying a fee to a search engine company for inclusion in its index of possible results, without a guarantee of ranking.

paid placement The practice of paying a fee to a search engine company to guarantee a higher ranking within its search results.

pandering Identifying with values not one’s own in order to win approval from an audience.

panel discussion A type of oral presentation in which a group of persons (at least three, and generally not more than nine) discusses a topic in the presence of an audience and under the direction of a moderator.

parable A story illustrating a moral or religious lesson.

parallel form The statement of equivalent speech points in similar grammatical form and style.

parallelism The arrangement of words, phrases, or sentences in similar grammatical and stylistic form. Parallel structure can help the speaker emphasize important ideas in the speech.

paraphrase A restatement of someone else’s statements or written work that alters the form or phrasing but not the substance of that person’s ideas.

pathos The Greek rhetorician Aristotle used this term for appeals to emotion. Such appeals can get the audience’s attention and stimulate a desire to act but must be used ethically.

pauses Strategic elements of a speech used to enhance meaning by providing a type of punctuation, emphasizing a point, drawing attention to a key thought, or just allowing listeners a moment to contemplate what is being said.

percentage The quantified portion of a whole.

performance anxiety A feeling of anxiety that occurs the moment one begins to perform.

periodical A regularly published magazine or journal.

peripheral processing A mode of processing a persuasive message that does not consider the quality of the speaker’s message, but is influenced by such noncontent issues as the speaker’s appearance or reputation, certain slogans or one-liners, and obvious attempts to manipulate emotions. Peripheral processing of messages occurs when people lack the motivation or the ability to pay close attention to the issues.

persuasive speaking Speech whose goal is to influence the attitudes, beliefs, values, or acts of others.

phrase outline A delivery outline that uses a partial construction of the sentence form of each point, instead of using complete sentences that present the precise wording for each point.

pitch The range of sounds from high to low (or vice versa) determined by the number of vibrations per unit of time; the more vibrations per unit (also called frequency), the higher the pitch, and vice versa.

plagiarism The act of using other people’s ideas or words without acknowledging the source.

podcast A digital audio recording of a presentation captured and stored in a form accessible via the Internet.

policy recommendation report An oral presentation that offers recommendations for solving a problem or addressing an issue.

poster A large (36” x 50”), bold, two-dimensional design incorporating words, shapes, and, if desired, color, placed on an opaque backing; used to convey a brief message or point forcefully and attractively.

poster session A format for the visual presentation of posters, arranged on freestanding boards, containing a display summarizing a study or an issue for viewing by participants at professional conferences. The speaker prepares brief remarks and remains on hand to answer questions as needed.

preparation anxiety A feeling of anxiety that arises when a speaker begins to prepare for a speech, at which point he or she might feel overwhelmed at the amount of time and planning required.

pre-performance anxiety A feeling of anxiety experienced when a speaker begins to rehearse a speech.

pre-preparation anxiety A feeling of anxiety experienced when a speaker learns he or she must give a speech.

presentation aids Objects, models, pictures, graphs, charts, video, audio, or multimedia used to illustrate speech points.

presentational speaking A type of oral presentation in which individuals or groups deliver reports addressing colleagues, clients, or customers within a business or professional environment.

previews Transitions that tell the audience what to expect next.

preview statement Statement included in the introduction of a speech in which the speaker identifies the main speech points.

primary source Original or firsthand research, such as interviews and surveys conducted by the speaker. See also secondary source.

problem-cause-solution pattern of arrangement A pattern of organizing speech points so that they demonstrate (1) the nature of the problem, (2) reasons for the problem, and (3) proposed solution(s).

problem-solution pattern of arrangement A pattern of organizing speech points so that they demonstrate the nature and significance of a problem first, and then provide justification for a proposed solution.

program evaluation presentation A report on a program’s mission with a description of its accomplishments and how they were measured, and conclusions on how well or poorly the program has met its stated objectives.

progress report A report that updates clients or principals on developments in an ongoing project.

pronunciation The correct formation of word sounds.

prop Any live or inanimate object used by a speaker as a presentation aid.

propaganda Information represented in such a way as to provoke a desired response.

proposal presentation A type of business or professional presentation in which the speaker provides information needed for decisions related to modifying or adopting a product, procedure, or policy.

prototype A model of a design.

public discourse Open conversation or discussion in a public forum.

public domain Bodies of work, including publications and processes, available for public use without permission; not protected by copyright or patent.

public forum Any space (physical or virtual) in which people gather to voice their ideas about public issues.

public speaking A type of communication in which a speaker delivers a message with a specific purpose to an audience of people who are present during the delivery of the speech. Public speaking always includes a speaker who has a reason for speaking, an audience that gives the speaker its attention, and a message that is meant to accomplish a purpose.

public-speaking anxiety Fear or anxiety associated with a speaker’s actual or anticipated communication to an audience.

quality improvement proposal A report that recommends the adoption of a new (or modified) health practice or policy.

questionnaire A written survey designed to gather information from a pool of respondents.

real-time presentation A presentation broadcast at the time of delivery via the Internet; real-time presentations connect the presenter and the audience live and at the same time. See also synchronous communication.

reasoning Establishing a logical explanation of a claim by linking it to evidence. See also warrant.

reasoning by analogy Comparing two similar cases to imply that what is true in one case is true in the other.

receiver The recipient of a source’s message; may be an individual or a group of people.

reckless disregard for the truth A quality of defamatory speech that is legally liable. See also defamatory speech.

recorded presentation A presentation in which speaker and audience are separated by time and space and the presentation is stored and played back from a digital medium. See also asynchronous communication.

red herring fallacy A fallacy of reasoning in which the speaker relies on irrelevant information to support an argument.

refutation pattern of arrangement A pattern of organizing speech points in which each main point addresses and then refutes (disproves) an opposing claim to a speaker’s position.

request for funding presentation A type of oral presentation providing evidence that a project, proposal, or design idea is worth funding; frequently delivered in technical fields such as engineering, computer science, and architecture.

research overview presentation A presentation that provides background for a research question that will form the basis of an impending experiment or investigation. See also oral scientific presentation.

research presentation An oral presentation describing original research undertaken by the speaker, either alone or as part of a team; it is frequently delivered in the fields of science and social science.

respect To feel or show deferential regard. For the ethical speaker, respect ranges from addressing audience members as unique human beings to refraining from rudeness and other forms of personal attack.

responsibility A charge, trust, or duty for which one is accountable.

restate-forecast transition A type of transition in which the speaker restates the point just covered and previews the point to be covered next.

review of academic articles A type of oral presentation in which the speaker reports on one or more articles or studies published in an academic journal.

review of the literature presentation A type of oral presentation in which the speaker reviews the body of research related to a given topic or issue and offers conclusions about the topic based on this research; frequently delivered in social scientific fields.

rhetoric A term with multiple meanings, all of which relate to aspects of human communication and encompass the art of public speaking.

rhetorical device A technique of language to achieve a desired effect.

rhetorical question A question that does not invite actual responses but is used to make the listener or the audience anticipate answers from the speaker.

rhetorical situation The circumstances that call for a public response.

roast A humorous tribute to a person; one in which a series of speakers jokingly poke fun at the individual being honored.

roman numeral outline An outline format in which main points are enumerated with roman numerals (I, II, III); supporting points with capital letters (A, B, C); third-level points with Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3); and fourth-level points with lowercase letters (a, b, c).

rules of engagement Standards of conduct for communicating with others in the public arena.

sales presentation (sales pitch) A type of oral presentation that attempts to lead a potential buyer to purchase a service or product described by the presenter.

sans serif typeface A typeface that is blocklike and linear and is designed without tiny strokes or flourishes at the top and bottom of each letter.

scale question A closed-ended question that measures the respondent’s level of agreement or disagreement with specific issues.

scanning A technique for creating eye contact with audiences; the speaker moves his or her gaze across an audience from one listener to another and from one section to another, pausing to gaze briefly at each individual.

screencast An online presentation that relies on software that captures whatever is displayed on a computer, from text to slides to streaming video.

secondary source Information gathered by others; can include published facts and statistics, texts, documents, and any other information not originally collected and generated by the researcher. See also primary source.

selective perception A psychological principle that posits that listeners pay attention selectively to certain messages and ignore others.

sentence outline An outline in which each main and supporting point is stated in sentence form and in precisely the way the speaker wants to express the idea; generally used for working outlines.

serif typeface A typeface that includes small flourishes, or strokes, at the top and bottom of each letter.

service learning presentation A presentation based on experience and knowledge gained by students actively participating in addressing a need or problem in a community or organization.

shared meaning The mutual understanding of a message between speaker and audience.

shift report Oral report by a health care worker that concisely relays patient status and needs to incoming caregivers.

signposts Conjunctions or phrases (such as “next,” “in the first case,” etc.) that indicate transitions between supporting points.

simile A figure of speech used to compare one thing with another by using the words “like” or “as” (e.g., “He works like a dog”). See also imagery.

six-by-six rule Rule of design that suggests using no more than six words per line and six lines or bullet points per slide or other visual aid.

slippery slope A logical fallacy in which one instance of an event is offered as leading to a series of events or actions. See also logical fallacy.

small group A collection of between three and twenty people.

small group communication Communication involving a small number of people who can see and speak directly with one another, as in a business meeting.

social news sites Web sites dedicated to specific kinds of news or entertainment (e.g., Digg, Daytripper, Campus Reader).

socioeconomic status (SES) A demographic variable that includes income, occupation, and education.

source The person who creates a message, also called a sender. The speaker transforms ideas and thoughts into messages and sends them to a receiver, or an audience.

source qualifier A brief description of the source’s qualifications.

source reliability The qualities that determine the value of a source, such as the author’s background and reputation, the reputation of a publication, the source of data, and how recent the reference is.

spatial pattern of arrangement A pattern of organizing main points in order of their physical proximity or direction relative to each other; used when the purpose of a speech is to describe or explain the physical arrangement of a place, a scene, or an object.

speaker credibility The quality that reveals that a speaker has a good grasp of the subject, displays sound reasoning skills, is honest and nonmanipulative, and is genuinely interested in the welfare of audience members; a modern version of ethos.

speaking extemporaneously A type of delivery that falls somewhere between impromptu and written or memorized deliveries. Speakers delivering an extemporaneous speech prepare well and practice in advance, giving full attention to all facets of the speech—content, arrangement, and delivery alike. Instead of memorizing or writing the speech word for word, they speak from an outline of key words and phrases.

speaking from manuscript A type of delivery in which the speaker reads the speech verbatim—that is, from prepared written text that contains the entire speech, word for word.

speaking from memory A type of delivery in which the speaker puts the entire speech, word for word, into writing and then commits it to memory.

speaking impromptu A type of delivery that is unpracticed, spontaneous, or improvised.

speaking outline A delivery outline to be used when practicing and actually presenting a speech.

speaking rate The pace at which a speech is delivered. The typical public speech occurs at a rate slightly less than 120 words per minute.

special occasion speech A speech whose general purpose is to entertain, celebrate, commemorate, inspire, or set a social agenda.

specific speech purpose A refined statement of purpose that zeroes in more closely than the general purpose on the goal of the speech. See also general speech purpose.

speech of acceptance A speech made in response to receiving an award. Its purpose is to express gratitude for the honor bestowed on the speaker.

speech of inspiration A speech whose purpose is to inspire or motivate the audience to consider positively, reflect on, and sometimes even to act on the speaker’s words.

speech of introduction A short speech whose purpose is defined by two goals: to prepare or “warm up” audience members for the speaker and to motivate them to listen to what the speaker has to say.

speech of presentation A speech whose purpose is twofold: to communicate the meaning of the award and to explain why the recipient is receiving it.

staff report A report that informs managers and other employees of new developments relating to personnel that affect them and their work.

statistics Quantified evidence; data that measure the size or magnitude of something, demonstrate trends, or show relationships with the purpose of summarizing information, demonstrating proof, and making points memorable.

story An account of events. See also narrative.

style The specific word choice, sentence structure, and rhetorical devices (techniques of language) that speakers use to express their ideas.

subject heading A word or phrase chosen by information specialists to describe and group related materials in a library catalog, database, or subject directory.

subject (Web) directory A searchable database of Web sites organized by categories (e.g.,Yahoo! Directory).

subordinate points Ideas subordinate to others that are thus given relatively less weight. In an outline, they are indicated by their indentation below the more important points.

summary Part of a conclusion to a speech; a restatement of points covered. Also, a brief overview of someone else’s thoughts, words, or ideas.

supporting material Examples, narratives, testimony, facts, and statistics that support the speech thesis and form the speech.

supporting points Information (examples, narratives, testimony, and facts and statistics) that clarifies, elaborates, and verifies the speaker’s assertions.

symposium A formal meeting at which several speakers deliver short speeches on the same topic.

synchronous communication Communication in which people exchange messages simultaneously, in real time. See also real-time presentations.

table A systematic grouping of data or numerical information in column form.

talking head A speaker who remains static, standing stiffly behind a podium, and so resembles a televised shot of a speaker’s head and shoulders.

target audience Those individuals within the broader audience who are most likely to be influenced in the direction the speaker seeks.

task roles Types of roles that directly relate to the accomplishment of the objectives and missions of a group. Examples include “recording secretary” and “moderator.”

team debate format A debate in which a team of two or more people opposes a second team, with each person having a speaking role.

team presentation A type of oral presentation prepared and delivered by a group of three or more people.

testimony Firsthand findings, eyewitness accounts, and opinions by people, both lay (nonexpert) and expert.

theoretical research presentation An oral presentation focusing on studies that attempt to analyze and explain a phenomenon; frequently delivered in social scientific fields.

thesis statement The theme, or central idea, of a speech that serves to connect all the parts of the speech in a single line. The main points, supporting material, and conclusion all relate to the thesis.

toast A brief tribute to a person or an event being celebrated.

topical pattern of arrangement A pattern of organizing main points as subtopics or categories of the speech topic.

topic mapping A brainstorming technique in which words are laid out in diagram form to show categorical relationships among them; useful for selecting and narrowing a speech topic. Also called mind mapping.

town hall meeting A type of forum in which citizens deliberate on issues of importance to the community.

transitions Words, phrases, or sentences that tie speech ideas together and enable a speaker to move smoothly from one point to the next.

trustworthiness The quality of displaying both honesty and dependability.

two-sided message In persuasive speaking, a message that mentions opposing points of view and refutes them. See one-sided message.

typeface A specific style of lettering, such as Arial, Times Roman, or Courier. Typefaces come in a variety of fonts, or sets of sizes (called the “point size”), and upper and lower cases.

values Our most enduring judgments about what is good and bad in life, as shaped by our culture and our unique experiences within it.

visualization An exercise for building confidence in which the speaker, while preparing for the speech, closes his or her eyes and envisions a series of positive feelings and reactions that will occur on the day of the speech.

vocal fillers Unnecessary and undesirable sounds or words used by a speaker to cover pauses in a speech or conversation. Examples include “uh,” “hmm,” “you know,” “I mean,” and “it’s like.”

vocal variety The variation of volume, pitch, rate, and pauses to create an effective delivery.

vodcast A podcast with video clips. See podcast.

voice A feature of verbs in written and spoken text that indicates the subject’s relationship to the action; verbs can be either active or passive.

volume The relative loudness of a speaker’s voice while giving a speech.

voluntary audience As opposed to a captive audience, an audience whose members have chosen to attend.

warrant The link between a claim and evidence. See also reasoning.

Webinar Real-time presentations, including training sessions, seminars, and other presentations that connect presenters and listeners through their computers or mobile devices, regardless of where they are in the world.

word association A brainstorming technique in which one writes down ideas as they come to mind, beginning with a single word.

working outline A preparation or rough outline using full sentences in which the speaker firms up and organizes main points and develops supporting points to substantiate them.