Figure 12.11: Effect of fathers’ absence on daughters’ rates of early sexual activity and teenage pregnancy These data came from two large-scale studies, one in the United States and one in New Zealand. The rates of early sexual activity and teenage pregnancy were statistically adjusted to factor out possible confounding variables, including race, socioeconomic class, the mother’s age at first birth, family life stress, parental discipline style, degree of parental monitoring, and neighborhood dangers.

(Based on data from Ellis et al., 2003.)