Figure 9.9: Schematic representation of the unity and diversity of three executive functions (EFs) The various EFs are related to one another, forming a common EFs factor. However, updating (working memory) and switching (shifting) also contribute independently to performance beyond what can be accounted for by the common EFs factor.

(With permission from Miyake, A. & Friedman, N. P. (2012). The nature and organization of individual differences in executive function: Four general conclusions. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21, 8-14. Copyright © Akira Miyake and Naomi P. Friedman, 2012. SAGE Publications.)